New Guinea (Tok Pisin:Niugini;Hiri Motu:Niu Gini;Indonesian:Papua, fossilizedNugini,[a] also known asPapua or historicallyIrian) is theworld's second-largest island, with an area of 785,753 km2 (303,381 sq mi). It has the third-largest remaining rainforest globally, and the highest plant biodiversity of any island.[1] Located inMelanesia in the southwesternPacific Ocean, the island is separated fromAustralia by the 150-kilometre (81-nautical-mile; 93-mile) wideTorres Strait, though both landmasses lie on the samecontinental shelf, and were united during episodes of low sea level in thePleistocene glaciations as the combined landmass ofSahul. Numerous smaller islands are located to the west and east. The island's name was given by Spanish explorerYñigo Ortiz de Retez during his maritime expedition of 1545 because of the perceived resemblance of the indigenous peoples of the island to those in theAfrican region of Guinea.[2]
The namePapua was used to refer to parts of the island before contact with the West.[4] Its etymology is unclear;[4] one theory states that it derived fromTidore, the language used by theSultanate of Tidore.[2] An expedition by theSultan of Tidore, together with Sahmardan, theSangaji ofPatani, and the PapuanGurabesi, managed to conquer some areas in New Guinea, which was then reorganised to formKorano Ngaruha ("Four Kings") orRaja Ampat,Papoua Gam Sio (lit. "The Papua NineNegeri"), andMafor Soa Raha (lit. TheMafor "FourSoa"). The name comes from the wordspapo ("to unite") andua (negation), which means "not united", i.e. an outlying possession of Tidore.[2][5][6]
Anton Ploeg reports that the wordpapua is often said to be derived from theMalay wordpapua orpua-pua, meaning "frizzly-haired", referring to the very curly hair of the island's inhabitants.[7] However Sollewijn Gelpke in 1993 considered this unlikely as it had been used earlier, and he instead derived it from theBiak phrasesup i babwa, which means "the land below [the sunset]", and refers to theRaja Ampat Islands.
When Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived via theSpice Islands, they also used the namePapua.[2][8] However, Westerners, beginning with Spanish explorerYñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545, used the nameNew Guinea, due to the resemblance between the indigenous peoples of the island and Africans of theGuinea region.[2] The name is one of severaltoponyms sharing similaretymologies, ultimately meaning "land of the blacks" or similar meanings.
The Dutch, who arrived later underJacob Le Maire andWillem Schouten, called itSchouten island. They later used this name only to refer to islands off the north coast of Papua proper, theSchouten Islands or Biak Island. When the Dutch colonized the main island as part of theDutch East Indies, they called itNieuw Guinea.[2]
The nameIrian was used in the Indonesian language to refer to the island and Indonesian province, asIrian Barat (West Irian) Province and laterIrian Jaya Province. The name Irian was suggested during a tribal committee meeting in Tobati, Jayapura, formed bySoegoro Atmoprasodjo under governor JP van Eechoed, to decide on a new name because of the negative association ofPapua.Frans Kaisiepo, the committee leader, suggested the name from Mansren Koreri myths,Iri-an from theBiak language ofBiak Island, meaning "hot land" (referring to the climate), but also fromIryan which means heated process as a metaphor for a land that is entering a new era. In SeruiIri-an (lit. "land-nation") means "pillar of nation", while in MeraukeIri-an (lit. "placed higher-nation") means "rising spirit" or "to rise".[6][9] The name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus Kaisiepo, brother ofFrans Kaisiepo.[4] The name was politicized later by Corinus Krey,[10]Marthen Indey,Silas Papare, and others with theIndonesianbackronymIkut Republik Indonesia Anti Nederland ("Join the Republic of Indonesia Oppose the Netherlands").[11][6]Irian was used somewhat in 1972.[12] The name was used until 2001, whenPapua was again used for the island and the province. The nameIrian, which was originally favored by natives, is now considered to be a name imposed by the Indonesian government.[4]
The shape of New Guinea is often compared to that of abird-of-paradise (indigenous to the island), and this results in the usual names for the two extremes of the island: theBird's Head Peninsula in the northwest (Vogelkop in Dutch,Kepala Burung in Indonesian; also known as the Doberai Peninsula), and the Bird's Tail Peninsula in the southeast (also known as thePapuan Peninsula).
A spine of east–west mountains, theNew Guinea Highlands, dominates the geography of New Guinea, stretching over 1,600 km (1,000 mi) across the island, with many mountains over 4,000 m (13,100 ft). The western half of the island contains the highest mountains inOceania, with its highest point,Puncak Jaya, reaching an elevation of 4,884 m (16,023 ft). Thetree line is around 4,000 m (13,100 ft) elevation, and the tallest peaks contain equatorialglaciers—which have beenretreating since at least 1936.[13][14][15] Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges. Except in high elevations, most areas possess a warm humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season.
Mount BosaviMap showing the combined landmass ofSahul formed during Pleistocene glacations
Another major habitat feature is the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometres, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, and some of the largest expanses of mangrove forest in the world. The southern lowlands are the site ofLorentz National Park, aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. The northern lowlands are drained principally by theMamberamo River and its tributaries on the western side, and by theSepik on the eastern side. The more extensive southern lowlands are drained by a larger number of rivers, principally theDigul in the west and theFly in the east. The largest island offshore,Dolak, lies near the Digul estuary, separated by a strait so narrow it has been named a "creek".
The entire length of theNew Guinea Highlands system passes through New Guinea as a vast watershed. The northern rivers flow into thePacific Ocean, the southern rivers into theArafura Sea and theGulf of Papua. On the north side, the largest rivers are the Mamberamo, Sepik and Ramu.Mamberamo was born from the confluence of two large inland rivers.Tariku comes from the west to the east andTaritatu from the east. These rivers meander through swamps with huge internal descents and then merge. The Mamberamo thus formed reaches the ocean by breaking through the Coastal Mountains. Mamberamo River is navigable to Marine Falls. TheSepik is a much more important river. Similarly, it collects water from a spacious pool. It is 1,100 kilometers from theVictor Emanuel Range to the estuary, making it the longest river in New Guinea. The winding, muddy, sluggish river can be navigated for 500 km.Ramu is a 650 km long river. Its lower section is navigable, but its upper flow is high-falling, fast-flowing. The energy of the river is used by a power plant near the city ofKainantu.
On the south side, the most significant rivers arePulau, Digul, Fly,Kikori andPurari. The largest river in the western part of the island isDigul. It originates from theStar Mountains, which rise to an altitude of 4,700 m. The coastal plain is bordered by a swamp world hundreds of kilometers wide. Digul is the main transport route to the fertile hills and mountains within the island. The riverFly is born near the eastern branches of the Digul. It is named after one of the ships of the English Royal Fleet, which first sailed into the mouth of the river in 1845. The total length of the river is 1,050 km. Smaller boats can sail 900 km on the river. The estuary section, which decomposes into islands, is 70 km wide. The tide of the sea can have an effect of up to 300 kilometers.Strickland, a tributary of the Fly, reaches the Papuan Plain through wild gorges. Fly and Strickland together form the largest river in New Guinea. The many rivers flowing into theGulf of Papua form a single delta complex. The rivers of the island are extremely rich in water due to the annual rainfall of 2,000–10,000 mm. According to a modest calculation, the New Guinea River carries about 1,500 km3/a (48,000 m3/s) of water into the sea. Fly alone carries more water 238 km3/a (7,500 m3/s) than all the rivers inAustralia combined.[16]
The island of New Guinea lies to the east of theMalay Archipelago, with which it is sometimes included as part of a greater Indo-Australian Archipelago.[17] Geologically it is a part of the sametectonic plate as Australia. When world sea levels were low, the two shared shorelines (which now lie 100 to 140 metres below sea level),[18] and combined with lands now inundated into the tectonic continent ofSahul,[19][20] also known as Greater Australia.[21] The two landmasses became separated when the area now known as the Torres Strait flooded after the end of thelast glacial period.
Anthropologically, New Guinea is considered part ofMelanesia.[22]
New Guinea is differentiated from its drier, flatter,[23] and less fertile[24][25] southern counterpart, Australia, by its much higher rainfall and its active volcanic geology. Yet the two land masses share a similar animal fauna, withmarsupials, includingwallabies andpossums, and the egg-layingmonotreme, theechidna. Other than bats and some two dozen indigenous rodent genera,[26] there are no pre-human indigenousplacental mammals. Pigs, several additional species of rats, and the ancestor of theNew Guinea singing dog were introduced with human colonization.
Prior to the 1970s, archaeologists called the singlePleistocene landmass by the nameAustralasia,[19] although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands, such asNew Zealand, which are not on the same continental shelf. In the early 1970s, they introduced the termGreater Australia for the Pleistocene continent.[19] Then, at a 1975 conference and consequent publication,[20] they extended the nameSahul from its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the continent.[19]
The current population of the island of New Guinea is about fifteen million. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans may have inhabited the island continuously since 50,000 BCE,[27][28] and first settlement possibly dating back to 60,000 years ago has been proposed. The island is presently populated by almost a thousand different tribal groups and a near-equivalent number of separate languages, which makes New Guinea the most linguistically diverse area in the world.Ethnologue's 14th edition lists 826 languages ofPapua New Guinea and 257 languages ofWestern New Guinea, total 1073 languages, with 12 languages overlapping.[clarification needed] They can be divided into two groups, theAustronesian languages, and all the others placed in the catch-all category ofPapuan languages, most of which are unrelated.[29]
The separation is not merely linguistic;warfare among societies was a factor in the evolution of themen's house: separate housing for groups of adult men, away from the single-family houses of women and children.[citation needed] Pig-based trade between groups and pig-based feasts form a common tradition with the other peoples of southeast Asia and Oceania. Most Papuan societies practice agriculture, supplemented by hunting and gathering.
Yali Mabel, Kurulu Village War Chief at Baliem Valley
Current evidence indicates that the Papuans (who constitute the majority of the island's peoples) are descended from the earliest human inhabitants of New Guinea. These original inhabitants first arrived in New Guinea during theLast Glacial Period when the island was connected to the Australian continent via aland bridge, forming the landmass ofSahul. These peoples had made the (shortened) sea-crossing from the islands ofWallacea andSundaland (the presentMalay Archipelago) by at least 40,000 years ago.
The ancestral Austronesian peoples are believed to have arrived considerably later, approximately 3,500 years ago, as part of a gradual seafaring migration fromSoutheast Asia, possibly originating in Taiwan. Austronesian-speaking peoples colonized many of the offshore islands to the north and east of New Guinea, such asNew Ireland andNew Britain, with settlements also on the coastal fringes of the main island in places. Human habitation of New Guinea over tens of thousands of years has led to a great deal of diversity, which was further increased by the later arrival of the Austronesians and the more recent history of European and Asian settlement through events liketransmigration.
In addition to Christianity and traditional belief systems, Islamic communities in parts of New Guinea, particularly in areas such as Fakfak and Sorong have been noted for encouraging interfaith cooperation and maintaining traditions of peace and tolerance.[30]
Large areas of New Guinea are yet to be explored by scientists and anthropologists. The Indonesian province ofWest Papua is home to an estimated 44uncontacted tribal groups.[31]
With some 786,000 km2 of tropical land—less than one-half of one percent (0.5%) of the Earth's surface—New Guinea has an immensebiodiversity, containing between 5 and 10 percent of the total species on the planet. This percentage is about the same amount as that found in the United States or Australia. A high percentage of New Guinea's species areendemic, and thousands are still unknown to science: probably well over 200,000 species of insect, between 11,000 and 20,000 plant species, and over 650 resident bird species. Most of these species are shared, at least in their origin, with the continent of Australia, which was until fairly recent geological times part of the same landmass (seeAustralia-New Guinea for an overview). The island is so large that it is considered 'nearly a continent' in terms of its biological distinctiveness.
In the period from 1998 to 2008, conservationists identified 1,060 new species in New Guinea, including 218 plants, 43 reptiles, 12 mammals, 580 invertebrates, 134 amphibians, 2 birds and 71 fish.[32] Between 2011 and 2017, researchers described 465 previously undocumented plant species in New Guinea.[33] As of 2019, the Indonesian portion of New Guinea and the Maluku Islands is estimated to have 9,518 species of vascular plants, of which 4,380 are endemic. In 2020, an international study conducted by a team of 99 experts cataloged 13,634 species representing 1,742 genera and 264 families of vascular plants for New Guinea and its associated islands (Aru Islands,Bismarck Archipelago,D'Entrecasteaux Islands,Louisiade Archipelago), making it the world's most floristically diverse island, surpassingMadagascar (11,488),Borneo (11,165),Java (4,598), andthe Philippines (9,432).[34]
Biogeographically, New Guinea is part ofAustralasia rather than theIndomalayan realm, although New Guinea's flora has many more affinities with Asia than its fauna, which is overwhelmingly Australian. Botanically, New Guinea is considered part ofMalesia, a floristic region that extends from the Malay Peninsula across Indonesia to New Guinea and theEast Melanesian Islands. The flora of New Guinea is a mixture of manytropical rainforest species with origins in Asia, together with typically Australasian flora. Typical Southern Hemisphere flora include theconifersPodocarpus and the rainforest emergentsAraucaria andAgathis, as well astree ferns and several species ofEucalyptus.
New Guinea has 284 species and six orders of mammals:monotremes, three orders ofmarsupials,rodents andbats; 195 of the mammal species (69%) are endemic. New Guinea has 578 species of breeding birds, of which 324 species are endemic. The island's frogs are one of the most poorly known vertebrate groups, totalling 282 species, but this number is expected to double or even triple when all species have been documented. New Guinea has a rich diversity of coral life and 1,200 species of fish have been found. Also about 600 species of reef-building coral—the latter equal to 75 percent of the world's known total. The entire coral area covers 18 million hectares off a peninsula in northwest New Guinea.
As of 2020, the Western portion of New Guinea, Papua and West Papua, accounts for 54% of the island's primary forest and about 51% of the island's total tree cover, according to satellite data.[35]
The continent of Sahul before the rising ocean sundered Australia and New Guinea after the last ice age
Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on New Guinea perhaps 60,000 years ago, although this is under debate.[39][40] They came probably by sea fromSoutheast Asia during theLast Glacial Period, when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter.
The first inhabitantsIndigenous people of New Guinea, from whom the Papuan people are probably descended, adapted to the range of ecologies and, in time, developed one of the earliest known agricultures. Remains of this agricultural system, in the form of ancient irrigation systems in the highlands of Papua New Guinea, are being studied by archaeologists. Research indicates that the highlands were an early and independent center of agriculture, with evidence of irrigation going back at least 10,000 years.[41]Sugarcane was cultivated in New Guinea around 6000 BCE.[42]
The gardens of theNew Guinea Highlands are ancient, intensivepermacultures, adapted to high population densities, very high rainfalls (as high as 10,000 mm per year (400 in/yr)), earthquakes, hilly land, and occasional frost. Complex mulches, crop rotations and tillages are used in rotation on terraces with complex irrigation systems. Western agronomists still do not understand all of the practices, and it has been noted that native gardeners are as, or even more, successful than most scientific farmers in raising certain crops.[43] There is evidence that New Guinea gardeners invented crop rotation well before western Europeans.[44] A unique feature of New Guinea permaculture is thesilviculture ofCasuarina oligodon, a tall, sturdy nativeironwood tree, suited to use for timber and fuel, with root nodules that fix nitrogen.Pollen studies show that it was adopted during an ancient period of extreme deforestation.
In more recent millennia, another wave of people arrived on the shores of New Guinea. These were theAustronesian people, who had spread down fromTaiwan, through theSouth-east Asian archipelago, colonising many of the islands on the way. The Austronesian people had technology and skills extremely well adapted to ocean voyaging and Austronesian language speaking people are present along much of the coastal areas and islands of New Guinea. They also introduced pigs anddogs. These Austronesian migrants are considered the ancestors of most people in insular Southeast Asia, fromSumatra andJava toBorneo andSulawesi, as well as coastal new Guinea.[45]
Group of natives at Mairy Pass. Mainland of British New Guinea in 1885.Papuans on theLorentz River, photographed during the third South New Guinea expedition in 1912–13
The western part of the island was in contact with kingdoms in other parts of modern-day Indonesia. TheNegarakertagama mentioned the region of Wanin and Sran, in easternNusantara as part ofMajapahit's tributary. This 'Wanin' has been identified with the Onin Peninsula, part of theBomberai Peninsula near the city ofFakfak.[46][47] while 'Sran' had been identified as region ofKowiai, just south of Onin peninsula.[6] The sultans ofTidore, in theMaluku Islands, claimed sovereignty over various coastal parts of the island.[48] During Tidore's rule, the main exports of the island during this period were resins, spices, slaves and the highly priced feathers of thebird-of-paradise. In a period of constant conflict called 'hongi wars', in which rival villages or kingdoms would invoke the name of Tidore Sultan, rightly, for punitive expeditions for not fulfilling their tributary obligations, or opportunitively for competitions over resources and prestige.[48]Sultan Nuku, one of the most famous Tidore sultans who rebelled against Dutch colonization, called himself "Sultan of Tidore and Papua",[49] during his revolt in 1780s. He commanded loyalty from both Moluccan and Papuan chiefs, especially those ofRaja Ampat Islands, from his base inGebe. Following Tidore's subjugation as Dutch tributary, much of the territory it claimed in western part of New Guinea came under Dutch rule as part of Dutch East Indies.[49]
The first known European contact with New Guinea was by Portuguese and Spanish sailors in the 16th century. In 1526–27, Portuguese explorerJorge de Menezes saw the western tip of New Guinea and named itilhas dos Papuas. In 1528, the Spanish navigatorÁlvaro de Saavedra also recorded its sighting when trying to return fromTidore toNew Spain. In 1545, SpaniardÍñigo Ortíz de Retes sailed along the north coast of New Guinea as far as theMamberamo River, near which he landed on 20 June, naming the island 'Nueva Guinea'.[50] The first known map of the island was made by F. Hoeiu in 1600[51] and shows it as 'Nova Guinea'. In 1606,Luís Vaz de Torres explored the southern coast of New Guinea fromMilne Bay to theGulf of Papua includingOrangerie Bay, which he namedBahía de San Lorenzo. His expedition also discoveredBasilaki Island naming itTierra de San Buenaventura, which he claimed for Spain in July 1606.[52] On 18 October, his expedition reached the western part of the island in present-day Indonesia, and also claimed the territory for the King of Spain.
New Guinea from 1884 to 1919.The Netherlands controlled the western half of New Guinea,Germany the north-eastern part, andBritain the south-eastern part.
A successive European claim occurred in 1828, when the Netherlands formally claimed the western half of the island asNetherlands New Guinea. Dutch colonial authority builtFort Du Bus an administrative and trading post established near Lobo, Triton Bay, but by 1835 had been abandoned.[53] Considering that New Guinea had little economic value for them, the Dutch promoted Tidore as suzerain of Papua. By 1849, Tidore's borders had been extended to the proximity of the current international border between Indonesia andPapua New Guinea, as it formed extensive trade pact and custom ofUli-Siwa ( federation of nine ).[54]
In 1883, following a short-lived French annexation ofNew Ireland, the British colony ofQueensland annexed south-eastern New Guinea. However, the Queensland government's superiors in theUnited Kingdom revoked the claim, and (formally) assumed direct responsibility in 1884, whenGermany claimed north-eastern New Guinea as the protectorate ofGerman New Guinea (also calledKaiser-Wilhelmsland).
The first Dutch government posts were established in 1898 and in 1902: Manokwari on the north coast, Fak-Fak in the west and Merauke in the south at the border withBritish New Guinea. The German, Dutch and British colonial administrators each attempted to suppress the still-widespread practices of inter-village warfare andheadhunting within their respective territories.[55]
On 18 March 1902, the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over southeast New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "Territory of Papua"); and, in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. DuringWorld War I, Australian forces seized German New Guinea, which in 1920 became theTerritory of New Guinea, to be administered by Australia under aLeague of Nationsmandate. The territories under Australian administration became collectively known as The Territories of Papua and New Guinea (until February 1942).
Before about 1930, European maps showed the highlands as uninhabited forests.[56] When first flown over by aircraft, numerous settlements with agricultural terraces and stockades were observed. The most startling discovery took place on 4 August 1938, whenRichard Archbold discovered theGrand Valley of the Baliem River, which had 50,000 yet-undiscovered Stone Age farmers living in orderly villages. The people, known as theDani, were the last society of its size to make first contact with the rest of the world.[57] A 1930 expedition led by the prospector Michael Lehay also encountered an indigenous group in the highlands. The inhabitants, believing themselves to be the only people in the world and, having never seen Europeans before, initially believed the explorers to be spirits of the dead due to the local belief that a person's skin turned white when they died and crossed into the land of the dead.[58]
Australian soldiers resting in theFinisterre Ranges of New Guinea while en route to the front line
Netherlands New Guinea and the Australian territories (the eastern half ) were invaded in 1942 by theJapanese. The Netherlands were defeated by that stage and did not put up a fight, and the western section was not of any strategic value to either side, so they did not battle there. The Japanese invaded the north shore of the Australia territories and were aiming to move south and take the southern shore too. The highlands, northern and eastern parts of the island became key battlefields in theSouth West Pacific Theatre ofWorld War II. Notable battles were forPort Moresby (the naval battle is known as theBattle of the Coral Sea),Milne Bay and for theKokoda track. Papuans often gave vital assistance to theAllies, fighting alongside Australian troops, and carrying equipment and injured men across New Guinea. Approximately 216,000 Japanese, Australian and U.S. soldiers, sailors and airmen died during the New Guinea Campaign.[59]
Following the return to civil administration after World War II, the Australian section was known as the Territory of Papua-New Guinea from 1945 to 1949 and then asTerritory of Papua and New Guinea. Although the rest of the Dutch East Indies achieved independence as Indonesia on 27 December 1949, the Netherlands regained control of western New Guinea.
Map of New Guinea, with place names as used in English in the 1940s
During the 1950s, the Dutch government began to prepare Netherlands New Guinea for full independence and allowed elections in 1959; the partial electedNew Guinea Council took office on 5 April 1961. The Council decided on the name of West Papua (Papua Barat) for the territory, along with an emblem,flag, andanthem to complement those of the Netherlands. On 1 October 1962, aftersome military interventions and negotiations, the Dutch handed over the territory to theUnited Nations Temporary Executive Authority, until 1 May 1963, when Indonesia took control. The territory was renamed West Irian (Irian Barat) and then Irian Jaya. In 1969, Indonesia, under the 1962New York Agreement, organised a referendum named theAct of Free Choice, in which the military hand picked Papuan tribal elders to vote for integration with Indonesia.[60][61]
There has been significant reported resistance to Indonesian integration and occupation,[62] both through civil disobedience (such as publicly raising the Morning Star flag) and via the formation of theOrganisasi Papua Merdeka (OPM, or Free Papua Movement) in 1965.[63]Amnesty International has estimated more than 100,000 Papuans, one-sixth of the population, have died as a result of government-sponsored violence against West Papuans.[64] Reports published byTRT World andDe Gruyter Oldenbourg have put the number of killed Papuans since the start of the conflict at roughly 500,000.[65][66]
From 1971, the name Papua New Guinea was used for the Australian territory. On 16 September 1975, Australia granted full independence to Papua New Guinea. In 2000, Irian Jaya was formally renamed "The Province of Papua" and a Law on Special Autonomy was passed in 2001. The Law established aPapuan People's Assembly [id] (MRP) with representatives of the different indigenous cultures of Papua. The MRP was empowered to protect the rights of Papuans, raise the status of women in Papua, and to ease religious tensions in Papua;block grants were given for the implementation of the Law as much as $266 million in 2004.[67] TheIndonesian courts' enforcement of the Law on Special Autonomy blocked further creation of subdivisions of Papua: although PresidentMegawati Sukarnoputri was able to create a separate West Papua province in 2003 as afait accompli, plans for a third province on western New Guinea were blocked by the courts.[68] Critics argue that the Indonesian government has been reluctant to establish or issue various government implementing regulations so that the legal provisions of special autonomy could be put into practice, and as a result special autonomy in Papua has "failed".[69][70]
^Crawford, Don (1972).Miracles In Indonesia. United States: Tyndale House Publishers. p. 6.ISBN9780842343503.
^Prentice, M.L. and G.S. Hope (2006). "Climate of Papua". Ch. 2.3 in Marshall, A.J., and Beehler, B.M. (eds.). The Ecology of Papua. Singapore: Periplus Editions.The authors note that "The magnitude of the recession of the Carstensz Glaciers, its causes, and its implications for local, regional, and global climate change are only qualitatively known. The recession of the Carstensz Glaciers from ~11 km2 in 1942 to 2.4 km2 by 2000 represents about an 80% decrease in ice area."
^abcdBallard, Chris (1993). "Stimulating minds to fantasy? A critical etymology for Sahul".Sahul in review: Pleistocene archaeology in Australia, New Guinea and island Melanesia. Canberra:Australian National University. pp. 19–20.ISBN0-7315-1540-4.
^"Melanesia, the ethnogeographic region that includes New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia, contains some of the most remote and inaccessible populations on earth." Highly divergent molecular variants of human T-lymphotropic virus type I from isolated populations in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, A Gessian, R Yanagihara, G Franchini, R M Garruto, C L Jenkins, A B Ajdukiewicz, R C Gallo, and D C Gajdusek, PNAS September 1, 1991 vol. 88 no. 17 7694–7698
^Grant, Cameron (August 2007)."Damaged Dirt"(PDF).The Advertiser. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 6 July 2011. Retrieved23 April 2010. "Australia has the oldest, most highly weathered soils on the planet."
^Lidicker, W. Z. Jr. (1968). "A Phylogeny of New Guinea Rodent Genera Based on Phallic Morphology".Journal of Mammalogy.49 (4):609–643.doi:10.2307/1378724.JSTOR1378724.
^Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002).Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment. Island Press; Washington, DC
^"The team also dated features consistent with the planting, digging, and tethering of plants and localized drainage systems to 10,000 years ago. Mounds constructed to plant water-intolerant plants such as bananas, sugarcane, and yams are dated to about 6,500 years ago." "Was Papua New Guinea an Early Agriculture Pioneer?" By John Roach, forNational Geographic News,June 23, 2003
^Collingridge, George The discovery of Australia, Sidney, 1895, pp.186–187
^scheme=AGLSTERMS. AglsAgent; corporateName=State Library of New South Wales; address=1 Shakespeare Place, Sydney (7 June 2016)."Mapping Papua New Guinea".www.sl.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved14 May 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Translation of Torres' report to the king in Collingridge, G. (1895)Discovery of Australia p.229-237. Golden Press Edition 1983, Gladesville, NSW.ISBN0-85558-956-6
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