InGermanic paganism,Nerthus is agoddess associated with a ceremonial wagon procession. Nerthus is attested by first century A.D. Roman historianTacitus in his ethnographic workGermania.
InGermania, Tacitus records that a group ofGermanic peoples were particularly distinguished by their veneration of the goddess. Tacitus describes the wagon procession in some detail: Nerthus's cart is found on an unspecified island in the "ocean", where it is kept in asacred grove and draped in white cloth. Only a priest may touch it. When the priest detects Nerthus's presence by the cart, the cart is drawn byheifers. Nerthus's cart is met with celebration and peacetime everywhere it goes, and during her procession no one goes to war and all iron objects are locked away. In time, after the goddess has had her fill of human company, the priest returns the cart to her "temple" and slaves ritually wash the goddess, her cart, and the cloth in a "secluded lake". According to Tacitus, the slaves are then immediately drowned in the lake.
Scholars have linked Tacitus's description of ceremonial wagons found from around Tacitus's time up until theViking Age, particularly the Germanic Iron AgeDejbjerg wagon in Denmark and the Viking AgeOseberg ship burial wagon in Norway. The goddess's nameNerthus (fromProto-Germanic *Nerþuz) is the early Germanic etymological precursor to the Old Norse deity nameNjörðr, a male deity who is comparably associated with wagons and water inNorse mythology. Together with his childrenFreyja andFreyr, the three form theVanir, a family of deities. The Old Norse record contains three narratives featuring ritual wagon processions that scholars have compared to Tacitus's description of Nerthus's wagon procession, one of which (and potentially all of them) focus on Njörðr's son Freyr.
Additionally, scholars have sought to explain the difference in gender between the early Germanic and Old Norse forms of the deity, discussed potential etymological connections to the obscure female deity nameNjörun, mention of the mysteriousSister-wife of Njörðr, proposed a variety of locations for where the procession may have occurred (generally inDenmark), and considered Tacitus's sources for his description.
Tacitus's Nerthus has had some influence on popular culture, and in particular the now widely rejected manuscript reading ofHertha in Germany.
Scholars commonly identify the goddess Nerthus withNjörðr, a deity who is attested inOld Norse texts and in numerousScandinavianplace names. A major reason for this isetymology: Scholars identify the Romano-GermanicNerthus as the exact expected linguistic precursor to the Old Norse deity nameNjörðr and havereconstructed the form asProto-Germanic *Nerþuz.[a] As outlined by philologist John McKinnell, "Nerthus > *Njarðuz (breaking) > *Njǫrðuz >Njǫrðr".[2] Scholars have additionally linked bothNerthus andNjörðr to the obscure Old Norse goddess nameNjörun.[b]
The meaning of thetheonym is unclear, but seems to be cognate withOld Irishnert, meaning 'strength', perhaps meaning 'the powerful one'. The name may be related toOld Englishgeneorð, meaning 'contented', and the Old English place nameNeorxnawang, used to gloss the word 'paradise' in Old English texts, or the wordnorth. According to philologistJaan Puhvel, "*Nerthuz is etymologically ambivalent, cognate not only with Old Irishnert 'strength' and Greekandro- but with Vedicsū-nrt́ā 'good vigor, vitality' (used especially forUṣás, thus gender ambivalent)".[4] According to McKinnell, "The meaning of the name has usually been connected with Old Irishnert 'strength' (so 'the powerful one'), but it might be related to Old Englishgeneorð 'contented' andneorxnawang 'paradise' (literally 'field of contentment'), or to the word 'north' (i.e. 'deity of the northern people', cf. Greekνέρτερος 'belonging to the underworld')."[5]
In chapter 40 of his ethnographyGermania, Roman historian Tacitus, discussing the Suebian tribes ofGermania, writes that, beside the populousSemnones and warlikeLangobardi, there are seven more remote Suebian tribes; theReudigni,Aviones,Anglii,Varini,Eudoses,Suarines, andNuitones. The seven tribes are surrounded by rivers and forests and, according to Tacitus, there is nothing particularly worthy of comment about them as individuals, yet they are particularly distinguished as a group in that they all worship the goddess Nerthus. The chapter reads as follows:
Latin:
- Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis ac valentissimis nationibus cincti non per obsequium, sed proeliis ac periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde et Aviones et Anglii et Varini et Eudoses et Suardones et Nuithones fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur. Nec quicquam notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Nerthum, id est Terram matrem, colunt eamque intervenire rebus hominum, invehi populis arbitrantur. Est in insula Oceani castum nemus, dicatumque in eo vehiculum, veste contectum; attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse penetrali deam intellegit vectamque bubus feminis multa cum veneratione prosequitur. Laeti tunc dies, festa loca, quaecumque adventu hospitioque dignatur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt; clausum omne ferrum; pax et quies tunc tantum nota, tunc tantum amata, donec idem sacerdos satiatam conversatione mortalium deam templo reddat. Mox vehiculum et vestes et, si credere velis, numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant, quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror sanctaque ignorantia, quid sit illud, quod tantum perituri vident.[6]
A. R. Birley translation:
- By contrast, the Langobardi are distinguished by being few in number. Surrounded by many mighty peoples they have protected themselves not by submissiveness but by battle and boldness. Next to them come the Ruedigni, Aviones, Anglii, Varini, Eudoses, Suarines, and Huitones, protected by river and forests. There is nothing especially noteworthy about these states individually, but they are distinguished by a common worship of Nerthus, that is, Mother Earth, and believes that she intervenes in human affairs and rides through their peoples. There is asacred grove on an island in the Ocean, in which there is a consecrated chariot, draped with cloth, where the priest alone may touch. He perceives the presence of the goddess in the innermost shrine and with great reverence escorts her in her chariot, which is drawn by female cattle. There are days of rejoicing then and the countryside celebrates the festival, wherever she designs to visit and to accept hospitality. No one goes to war, no one takes up arms, all objects of iron are locked away, then and only then do they experience peace and quiet, only then do they prize them, until the goddess has had her fill of human society and the priest brings her back to her temple. Afterwards the chariot, the cloth, and, if one may believe it, the deity herself are washed in a hidden lake. The slaves who perform this office are immediately swallowed up in the same lake. Hence arises dread of the mysterious, and piety, which keeps them ignorant of what only those about to perish may see.[7]
Harold Mattingly translation:
- The Langobardi, by contrast, are distinguished by the fewness of their numbers. Ringed round as they are by many mighty peoples, they find safety not in obsequiousness but in battle and its perils. After them come the Reudingi, Aviones, Anglii, Varini, Eudoses, Suarini and Nuitones, behind their ramparts of rivers and woods. There is nothing noteworthy about these peoples individually, but they are distinguished by a common worship of Nerthus, or Mother Earth. They believe that she interests herself in human affairs and rides among their peoples. In an island of the Ocean stands a sacred grove, and in the grove a consecrated cart, draped with cloth, which none but the priest may touch. The priest perceives the presence of the goddess in this holy of holies and attends her, in deepest reverence, as her cart is drawn by heifers. Then follow days of rejoicing and merry-making in every place that she designs to visit and be entertained. No one goes to war, no one takes up arms; every object of iron is locked away; then, and only then, are peace and quiet known and loved, until the priest again restores the goddess to her temple, when she has had her fill of human company. After that the cart, the cloth and, if you care to believe it, the goddess herself are washed clean in a secluded lake. This service is performed by slaves who are immediately afterwards drowned in the lake. Thus mystery begets terror and pious reluctance to ask what the sight can be that only those doomed to die may see.[8]
Tacitus does not provide information regarding his sources for his description of Nerthus (nor the rest ofGermania). Tacitus's account may stem from earlier but now lost literary works (such as perhapsPliny the Elder's lostBella Germaniae), potentially his own experiences in Germania, or merchants and soldiers, such as Germanic peoples in Rome, or Germania and Romans who spent time in the region.[c]
Tacitus'sGermania places particular emphasis on the Semnones, and scholars have suggested that some or all of Tacitus's information may come from KingMasyas of the Semnones and/or his high priestess, theseeressGanna. The two visited Rome for a blessing from Roman emperorDomitian in 92 AD. While Tacitus appears to have been away from Rome during this period, he would have had plenty of opportunity to gain information provided by King Masyas and Ganna from those who spent time with the two during their visit.[d]
Tacitus's description of the Nerthus procession has been the subject of extensive discussion from scholars.
All surviving manuscripts of Tacitus'sGermania date from around the fifteenth century and these display significant variation in the name of the goddess: All attested forms are inaccusative case and includeNertum (yielding the nominate formNerthus),Herthum (implying a nominative form ofHertha) and several others (includingNechtum,Neithum,Neherthum, andVerthum).[9]
Of the various forms found in the extantGermania manuscript tradition, two have yielded significant discussion among scholars since at least the nineteenth century,Nerthus andHertha. Hertha was popular in some of the earliest layers ofGermania scholarship, such as the edition ofBeatus Rhenanus. These scholars linked the name with a common German word forEarth (compare modern GermanErde). This reading has subsequently been rejected by most scholars. Since pioneering nineteenth centuryphilologist Jacob Grimm's identification of the form Nerthus as the etymological precursor to the Old Norse deity nameNjǫrðr, the readingNerthus has been widely accepted as correct in scholarship.[a]
In 1902, theCodex Aesinas (often abbreviated asE) was discovered, and it was also found to contain the formNertum, yielding the readingNerthus. The Codex Aesinas is a fifteenth-century composite manuscript that is considered a direct copy of theCodex Hersfeldensis, the oldest identifiable manuscript of the text. All other manuscripts of Tacitus'sGermania are thought by scholars to stem from the Codex Aesinas.[e]
Some scholars have continued suggesting alternate readings toNerthus. For example, in 1992,Lotte Motz proposes that the linguistic correspondence is a coincidence and that "The variantnertum was chosen by Grimmbecause it corresponds to Njǫrðr".[f]Instead, Motz propose that various female entities from the continental Germanic folklore record, particularly those in central Germany and the Alps, stem from a single source, whom she identifies as Nerthus, and that migrating Germanic peoples brought the goddess to those regions from coastal Scandinavia.[10] After her death, Motz's proposal received support fromRudolf Simek. John Lindow rejects Motz's proposal and Simek's support. He highlights the presence of the form in the Codex Aesinas (discovered in 1902, whileGrimm died in 1863), and asks, "would it not be an extraordinary coincidence that a deity who fits the pattern of the later fertility gods should have a name that is etymologically identical with one of them?"[g]
Scholars have proposed a variety of locations for Tacitus's account of Nerthus. For example,Anders Andrén says:
Some scholars have proposed that the location of the Nerthus procession occurred onZealand in Denmark. They link the Nerthus with the medieval place nameNiartharum (modernNærum) located on Zealand. Further justification is given in thatLejre, the seat of the ancient kings of Denmark, is also located on Zealand. Nerthus is then commonly compared to the goddessGefjon, who is said to have plowed the island of Zealand from Sweden in theProse Edda bookGylfaginning and in Lejre wed the legendary Danish kingSkjöldr.[12]
Chambers notes that the mistaken nameHertha (seeName and manuscript variations above) led to thehydronymHerthasee, a lake on the German island ofRügen, which antiquarians proposed as a potential location of the Nerthus site described in Tacitus. However, along with the rejection of the readingHertha, the location is no longer considered to be a potential site.[13]
AlthoughNjörðr etymologically descends from *Nerþuz, Tacitus describes Nerthus female while the Old Norse deity Njörðr is male. The form *Nerþuz does not indicate whether the deity was considered male or female. This difference in gender between the two has resulted in significant discussion from scholars. A variety of reasons for this difference have been proposed: Over the years, scholars have variously proposed that that Nerthus was likely one of a pair of deities in a manner similar to Njörðr's incestuous childrenFreyr andFreyja (perhaps involvinghieros gamos), that Nerthus was ahermaphroditic deity, that the deity's gender simply changed from female to male over time, or that Tacitus's account mistakes Nerthus for a female deity rather than male deity.[14] Others have proposed that a 'female Njörðr' continues into the Old Norse corpus as theSister-wife of Njörðr and/or in the goddess nameNjörun.[15]
Scholars associate Tacitus's description of Nerthus'svehiculum (translated above by Birley as "chariot" and by Mattingly as "cart") ritually deposited in alacus (translated by Birley and Mattingly above as "lake") with ceremonial wagons found ritually placed in peat bogs around Tacitus's time, ceremonial wagons from the Viking Age, and descriptions of ceremonial wagon processions in Old Norse texts.[16] Notable examples include theDejbjerg wagon—in fact a composite of two wagons—discovered in westernJutland, Denmark.[h] A wagon from the Viking Age was found in theOseberg ship burial in Norway. This wagon may have been incapable of turning corners and may have been used solely for ritual purposes.[17] The ship burial contains tapestry fragments, today known as theOseberg tapestry fragments. These fragments depict a wagon procession.[18]
In Norse mythology, Njörðr is strongly associated with water, and he and his children, Freyr and Freyja, are particularly associated with wagons. Together this family is known in Old Norse sources as theVanir. Njörðr is referred to as "god of wagons" (Old Norsevagna guð) in the principal manuscript ofSkáldskaparmál (the Codex Regius).[19][i]According to theProse Edda, Freyja drives a chariot driven by cats, which scholars have linked to the depiction of nine cats on the Oseberg ship burial wagon, potentially indicating a wagon procession featuring the goddess.[20] Dated to the fourteenth century,Ögmundar þáttr dytts tells of a ritual wagon procession wherein a depiction of Freyr is driven around in a wagon by a priestess in a manner scholars have compared to Tacitus's description.[21]
Similar wagon procession-narratives may be found in two other texts, namely a description of a deity nameLýtir inFlateyjarbók and one featuringFrotho inGesta Danorum, who is driven around for three days after his death so that the country wouldn't crumble. Both of these names have been interpreted by scholars as likely bynames for Freyr.[j]
Some scholars have interpreted this to reflect that this procession occurred as a cyclic ritual associated with the Vanir. According toJens Peter Schjødt,
Schjødt further writes:
Hilda Davidson draws a parallel between these incidents andTacitus's account[1] of Nerthus, suggesting that in addition a neck-ring-wearing female figure "kneeling as if to drive a chariot" also dates from the Bronze Age. Davidson says that the evidence suggests that similar customs as detailed in Tacitus's account continued to exist during the close of the pagan period through worship of the Vanir.[24][full citation needed]
Known asbog bodies, numerous well-preserved human remains have been found inpeat bogs in Northern Europe. Like the wagons interred in peat bogs discussed above, these bodies were intentionally andritually placed. Various scholars have linked Tacitus's description of drowned slaves in a "lake" as a reference to the interment of human corpses in peat bogs. For example, according to archaeologistPeter Vilhelm Glob:
In his description of Nerthus, Tacitus refers to the goddess as "Mother Earth" (Terra Mater). This has been received by scholars in a variety of ways and affected early manuscript readings of the deity's name (especiallyHerthum, see "Name and manuscript variations" section above). In his assessment of the Old Norse personification of earth (Jörð, a goddess inNorse mythology), McKinnell says that the Old Norse earth personification does not appear to be notably connected to theVanir, Njörðr, and/or Nerthus. He concludes that "it seems likely that Tacitus equates Nerthus withTerra Mater as aninterpretatio Romana, a translation into terms his Roman readers would find familiar."[26] John Lindow says that Tacitus's "identification with Mother Earth probably has much less to do with Jörd in Scandinavian mythology than with fertility goddesses in many cultures".[19]
ThePhrygian goddessCybele had been absorbed into the Roman pantheon by Tacitus's time, and Tacitus served as a priest in the cult of Cybele, which included duties such as washing a sacred cult stone. Similar to Tacitus's description of Nerthus, Cybele was at times closely connected to or conflated with the concept ofTerra Mater ('Mother Earth') through her identity asMater Deum ('Mother of the Gods'), and was at times depicted with a chariot pulled by lions.[27]
Theminor planet601 Nerthus is named after Nerthus. The form "Hertha" was adopted byseveral German football clubs.
Up until its superseding as the dominant reading,Hertha had some influence in German popular culture. For example,Hertha andHerthasee (see "location" section above) play major roles in German novelistTheodor Fontane's 1896 novelEffi Briest.[28]
Nerþuz is a character who appears inFire Emblem Heroes.
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