Nepotism is the act of granting anadvantage, privilege, or position torelatives in an occupation or field. These fields can include business, politics, academia, entertainment, sports, religion orhealth care. In concept, it is similar tocronyism.[1][2]
The term originated with the assignment of nephews, sons, or other relatives to important positions by Catholic popes and bishops.[3] It has often been witnessed inautocracies, wherebytraditional aristocracies usually contested amongst themselves in order to obtain leverage, status, etc.
The term comes from the Italian wordnepotismo,[5][6] which is based on the Latin rootnepos meaning nephew.[7] Since theMiddle Ages and until the late 17th century, someCatholic popes and bishops – who had taken vows ofcelibacy and, therefore, usually had no legitimate offspring of their own – gave their nephews such positions of preference as were often accorded by fathers to sons.[8] They would also do the same with children who were the illegitimate result of broken celibacy vows, and who were claimed to be "nephews" instead of sons.[9]
Several popeselevated nephews and other relatives to thecardinalate. Often, such appointments were a means of continuing a papal "dynasty".[10] For instance,Pope Callixtus III, head of theBorgia family, made two of his nephews cardinals; one of them, Rodrigo, later used his position as a cardinal as a stepping stone to the papacy, becomingPope Alexander VI.[11] Alexander then elevated Alessandro Farnese, his mistress's brother, to cardinal; Farnese would later go on to becomePope Paul III.[12] Paul III also engaged in nepotism, appointing, for instance, two illegitimate grandsons, aged 14 and 16, as cardinals. The practice was finally limited whenPope Innocent XII issued thebullRomanum decet Pontificem in 1692.[8] The papal bull prohibited popes in all times from bestowing estates, offices, or revenues on any relative, with the exception that one qualified relative (at most) could be made a cardinal.[13]
Nepotism in organizations leads tomonopolization of power because when members involved in institutionaldecision-making are related, decisions made within institutions risk favoring a group of closely connected people.[17]
Nepotism can also occur within organizations, when a person is employed due to their familial ties.[18] It is generally seen as unethical, both on the part of the employer and employee.[19] One of the consequences of nepotism in an organization is the creation of a limitation in the organization's network of contacts, reducing the opportunities for negotiation with other social circles, which can lead to a reduction in the success and duration of organizations in the long term.[20]
Nepotism at work can mean increased opportunity at a job, attaining a job or being paid more than other similarly situated people.[21] Arguments are made both for and against employment granted due to a family connection, which is most common in small,family-run businesses. On one hand, nepotism can provide stability and continuity. Critics cite studies that demonstrate decreased morale and commitment from non-related employees,[22] and a generally negative attitude towards superior positions filled through nepotism. An article fromForbes magazine stated, "there is no ladder to climb when the top rung is reserved for people with a certain name."[23] Employing intimate people favors perpetuating the ideas or goals of those who employ them, knowing that the people around them will hold them. However, it can lead to a lack of competent staff or a reduction inproductivity because even if the employees are not the best options for their functions, they will be protected by those who employ them.[24] Some businesses forbid nepotism as an ethical matter, considering it too troublesome and disruptive. Most Companies' Codes of Conduct include severe disciplinary sanctions forConflicts of Interest. However, in Nepotistic practices, these are rarely observed or implemented.[citation needed]
Ben Platt's role as high schoolerEvan Hansen in the2021 film adaptation of the musicalDear Evan Hansen as a result of his winning theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical for originating the role on Broadway in 2016, as well as the involvement of his father,Marc Platt, as one of the film's producers. The latter was never involved in the producing team of the stage version. The casting sparked controversy due to Ben Platt being ten years older than his character at the time of filming, resulting in critics and viewers deeming him too old to reprise his role.[31][32] He would go on to be nominated for twoGolden Raspberry Awards, includingWorst Actor, for his performance.[33]
TheLos Angeles Lakers encountered allegations of nepotism when they selectedBronny James, the son ofLeBron James, in the2024 NBA draft. Although other NBA prospects exemplified greater promise, experts questioned Bronny's NBA readiness due to his lackluster performance during his only NCAA season. Reports revealed that LeBron's agent,Rich Paul, actively discouraged other teams from drafting Bronny, even going so far as to suggest that he might play overseas if selected.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44]
Nepotism is in academia, where it is common for professors to have their partners, and sometimes children, hired by the same faculty in which they work.[45] In the second half of the 20th century, in the United States at least, this was far less frequent as universities typically held very strict anti-nepotism policies.[46] Countries with high levels of corruption and higher education systems with low competition between universities generally have higher levels of corruption in academia.[47] Italy has been noted for having particularly high levels of nepotism in its academic system, when compared to other developed nations.[48][49] Nepotism is often praised for favoring female employment in academia.[50]
InArgentina, nepotism is a common practice. Although there have been various attempts at reducing it,[52] it is difficult in a country where state jobs are used as a token of gratitude or party favoritism.
Former presidentMauricio Macri has been investigated for nepotism after allegedly extending a tax amnesty to his family.[53]Nonetheless, in 2018, the government of Mauricio Macri set a limit on nepotism through Decree 93/2018[54] establishing that "appointments of people could no longer be made, under any modality, throughout the National Public Sector, who have some kinship link both in straight line as well as in a collateral line up to the second degree, with the President and Vice President of the Nation, Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers, Ministers and other officials with the rank and hierarchy of Minister. The spouse and the Cohabitant Union are included. "
TheKirchnerist movement has been openly accused of believing in nepotism, treating meritocracy as a pejorative concept.[55][56] The government's ministries and secretariats are reportedly plagued with friends, family and supporters of the current party leaders, many of whom have been criticized for being incompetent at their jobs.[57]
On December 10, 2023, the libertarian presidentJavier Milei takes office – who campaigned criticizing the political "caste", an entelechy built to denigrate traditional political parties and among whose characteristics is that of appointing friends and family to public positions on a discretionary basis – and in one of his first measures he modifies the Mauricio Macri's Decree 93/2018 to be able to grant his sister,Karina Milei, the position of General Secretary of the Presidency.[58] Less than two months later, Francisco Adorni, the brother of the government spokespersonManuel Adorni, took a position as an advisor in the Ministry of Defense.[59]
Shortly after he was appointed the Anglican Archbishop of Sydney in 2001,Peter Jensen was accused, in an Australian Broadcasting Corporation interview, of nepotism after nominating his brotherPhillip Jensen as Dean of Sydney and appointing his wife Christine Jensen to an official position in the Sydney diocese.[60]
Anna Bligh, who won the 2009 Queensland State election, has been accused of nepotism for giving her husband, Greg Withers, a position as the Office of Climate Change head.[61]
Football Federation Australia was led byFrank Lowy from its inception in 2004 until histerm limit exit in 2015. His son,Steven Lowy, who had little direct involvement in high-level sports governance, was nominated as his replacement by Frank, and was elected unopposed by a board strongly loyal to Frank. Steven's introduction exacerbated existing governance issues, with factional opposition led byCity Football Group causingFIFA intervention to be threatened. Eventually, governance reforms were forced through despite opposition from the Lowy family, and it ended with Steven Lowy resigning from the role. Lowy had also been accused of nepotism regarding his sons in his corporate dealings as the founder ofWestfield Group.[62][63]
On 21 February 2017,President of AzerbaijanIlham Aliyev created the position ofVice President of Azerbaijan, then appointed his wife,Mehriban Aliyeva, to the position.[64] Since 1993, the presidency of Azerbaijan has always been in the hands of a member of the Aliyev family: in 1993,Heydar Aliyev was elected president of Azerbaijan, and after his death in a United States hospital in 2003, his son Ilham Aliyev became president and has been since then. His regime has been accused of a lack of democratic freedoms and press freedom.[65][66]
Over the past decade, criticism has been growing over the creation of political dynasties in Belgium. This phenomenon has been explained by the fact that prominent party members control the ranking of candidates on party lists for elections and a candidate's place on a list determines who is elected. Another justification for the phenomenon is the importance of name recognition for collecting votes.[67]
Claims of nepotism have been made againstBruno Tobback, the son of senator and former ministerLouis Tobback, a member of the Flemish socialists. He became the Belgian federal government's minister for pensions and environment at 35 in 2005.[68]Alexander De Croo, the son of former speaker of the Belgian parliament Herman De Croo, ran for the leadership of his father's party Open VLD at age 33.[69] Finally, there is the example ofMaya Detiège, the daughter of former mayor of the city ofAntwerp Leona Detiège, who herself is the daughter of the former mayor ofAntwerp Frans Detiège.[67]Among other examples are former ministerFreya Van Den Bossche and senatorJean-Jacques De Gucht, being the daughter and son, respectively, of former ministerLuc Vandenbossche and former ministerKarel De Gucht.
In Brazil, nepotism heavily affects the integrity of public institutions, includingaudit bodies responsible for overseeing executive decisions. Studies indicate that around 30% of audit judges are directly related to other politicians, creating a network of familial ties that can lead to conflicts of interest and reduce the effectiveness of independent oversight (Transparency International, 2023).[70] This high rate of nepotism often results in biased audit outcomes, eroding public trust and obstructing fair governance. The presence of such familial networks within regulatory bodies not only compromises transparency but also perpetuates inefficiency and corruption, limiting reform efforts across Brazil's political landscape (Instituto Não Aceito Corrupção, 2022).[71]
For the past 3,000 years, nepotism has been common in China's clan and extended family-based culture.Confucius wrote about the importance of balancing "filial piety with merit". Theclan-basedfeudal system collapsed during Confucius' lifetime, yet nepotism has continued through the modern age.[73][74]
In October 2009,Jean Sarkozy, the second son of thePresident of the French Republic,Nicolas Sarkozy, was poised to become the director of the majorEPAD [fr] authority despite lacking any higher education degree and professional experience.[75] In 2008, he was voted regional councillor ofNeuilly-sur-Seine, the town of which his father had previously been mayor.[76]
In September 2009,rap-producer Pierre Sarkozy, the first son of then-President Nicolas Sarkozy, askedSCPP [fr] for a financial contribution of around €10000 towards an €80000 artistic project. Because he was not an SCPP member, the request was automatically rejected. Pierre Sarkozy then went to theÉlysée, which led to an Élysée aide contacting the SCPP, and SCPP president Marc Guez assuring the issue would soon be favorably resolved.[77][78] According toAbeille Music [fr] president and SCPP member Yves Riesel, however, this would not happen as SCPP's financial help has been restricted to members only for months.[79]
In Greece, it is common practice for family members of current or former party leaders to be party members and get appointed as ministers when the party is in government.[80] In addition, there have been three prime ministers from thePapandreou family,[81] two from theMitsotakis family (one currently serving),[82] two from theKaramanlis family (a third one was serving as minister of transportation until February 2023, quitting his position following the worst rail disaster in the history of the country).
Research conducted found that in India, family CEOs are generally paid more than professional CEOs, especially in high-performing, eponymous firms. Additionally, family CEOs in these firms exhibit greater pay-performance sensitivity, benefiting more from strong performance while remaining insulated from poor outcomes. These findings indicate that CEO compensation can be used by controlling families in emerging markets as a tool to extract private benefits, often at the expense of minority shareholders.[83]
Many judges and advocates of thehigh courts and theSupreme Court of India are alleged to be appointed by exercising casteism, nepotism,[89][90][91] and favoritism, primarily due to the Supreme Court and the high court appointment process calledCollegium[92] which recommends to the President, in a legally binding manner, the names of judges to be appointed or promoted to the higher judiciary. The various judicial services exams are also infamous for these practices.[93]
Suharto, Indonesia's second president, is involved in nepotism, alongside corruption andcollusion (together, they are known as theKKN inIndonesian:korupsi, kolusi, dan nepotisme). Companies belonging to Suharto's children, particularly Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana ("Tutut"), Hutomo Mandala Putra ("Tommy"), and Bambang Trihatmodjo, were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include the toll-expressway companyJasamarga (monopolized by Tutut), the national car projectTimor (monopolized by Bambang and Tommy), and the cinema market (monopolized by21 Cineplex, which is owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about 36,000 km2 (14,000 sq mi) of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m2 (1,100,000 sq ft) of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land inEast Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish "strategic partnerships" with the former Indonesian president's family companies.[101][102]
Nepotism is common inMauritian politics, with many relatives and friends of high-ranking politicians being appointed to high-ranking positions and associated companies being granted government contracts.
Since thefirst democratic elections in 1948, the field of politics in Mauritius has been marked by a handful of families who have controlled the four major political parties which exist to this day. They are often referred to as the "modern dynasties" of Mauritian politics, such as the Duval, Bérenger, Curé, Uteem, Mohamed, Boolell, Ramgoolam and Jugnauth families. The Boolell family's involvement in politics started withSatcam Boolell in 1955, paving the way for his sonArvin Boolell, nephews Satish Boolell, Anil Gayan, and Sanjay Bhuckory, and son-in-law Sushil Kushiram to enter politics. The Duval dynasty started with ex-Lord mayor and minister Gaetan Duval, followed by his sons Xavier and Richard, as well as his grandson Adrien. Lall Jugnauth was the first of his clan to enter politics in the 1950s and was followed by his cousins Aneerood and Ashock as well as his nephew Pravind. Abdool Razack Mohamed, who migrated from India in the 1930s, became Lord Mayor and minister; his son, Yousuf and grandson, Shakeel, were also elected and served as ministers.[103]Roshi Bhadain, who was a minister of theMSM government, is the nephew of former Labour Party ministerVasant Bunwaree.[104]Roshi Bhadain and Akilesh Deerpalsing (Bhadain's advisor and campaign manager, who is also the son of former ministerKishore Deerpalsing) were investigated byICAC in 2019 for suspicious recruitment practices when he was a minister.[105][106][107]
In March 2020, Harry Ganoo, the retired brother of MinisterAlan Ganoo, was nominated as the new president of the Civil Service College Mauritius, a few months after the November 2019 General Elections.[108]
The appointment ofNurul Izzah Anwar as a senior economic and finance advisor by Prime MinisterAnwar Ibrahim resulted in accusations of nepotism.[109] The action was widely criticized by intellectuals, NGOs and even party members of the Pakatan Harapan coalition, who claimed it contravened principles of merit and fairness.[110]
Due to its small native population, Malta has an entrenched culture of nepotism, which became more evident since the country gained independence from theBritish Empire in 1964.[111]
In a Eurobarometer survey published in 2023, 55% of Maltese businesses reported that nepotism and patronage were primary problems, and 70% said close links between businesspeople and politicians led to corruption.[112]
By comparison, only 37% of respondents in other EU member states saw nepotism and patronage as problematic, and 35% cited corruption as a concern.[112]
Singapore's government has been the target of numerous charges of nepotism, with several members of thePrime Minister's family holding high-ranking posts.Lee Kuan Yew, who was prime minister from 1959 to 1990, preceded his sonLee Hsien Loong. Other family members holding high positions include the elder Lee's daughter,Lee Wei Ling, the director of the National Neurological Institute, his other son,Lee Hsien Yang, the chief executive officer ofSingapore Telecommunications from 1995 to 2007 and the younger Lee's wife,Ho Ching, who was appointedchief executive officer of state holding investment companyTemasek Holdings. The family members dispute the charges as they arise.[116]
Former President of Sri Lanka,Mahinda Rajapaksa, has been accused of nepotism, appointing three brothers to run important ministries and giving out other political positions to relatives, regardless of their merit. During his presidency, the Rajapaksa family held the ministries offinance,defence,ports and aviation, andhighways and road development. The president's brother,Gotabhaya Rajapaksa, was given the post ofDefence Secretary. He also controlled the armed forces, the police and the Coast Guard, and was responsible for immigration and emigration. Rajapaksa appointed his brotherBasil Rajapaksa as Minister of Economic Development. Together, the Rajapaksa brothers controlled over 70% of Sri Lanka's public budget. Mahinda Rajapaksa's eldest brother,Chamal Rajapaksa, was appointed as theSpeaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka, and has held many other posts before, while his eldest son, Namal Rajapaksa, is also a member of the parliament and holds undisclosed portfolios.[117][118]
Others include his nephew,Shashindra Rajapaksa, the formerChief Minister of Uva; one of his cousins,Jaliya Wickramasuriya, the former Sri Lankan ambassador to the United States; and another cousin,Udayanga Weeratunga, the former ambassador to Russia. Dozens of nephews, nieces, cousins, and in-laws have also been appointed heads of banks, boards, and corporations.[118]
Also, former president Ranasinghe Premadasa's son Sajith Premadasa is the Opposition leader of Sri Lanka, who ran for the presidential election in 2019 as well.[119]
In February 2010, Sir Christopher Kelly, chairman of theCommittee on Standards in Public Life, said that more than 200 MPs used Parliamentary allowances to employ their own relatives in a variety of office roles. He suggested that the practice should be banned.[130]
North Yorkshire Police's Chief ConstableGrahame Maxwell was disciplined by the IPCC in 2011, but refused to resign, after admitting that he assisted a relative through the first stages of a recruitment process.[131]
Many Northern Irish politicians employ family members. In 2008, 19 elected politicians of theDemocratic Unionist Party (DUP) directly employed family members and relatives, comprising 27 of its 136 staff.[132]
In December 2012, a report fromThe Washington Post indicated various nepotism practices from theDistrict of Columbia and NorthernVirginia'sMetropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA), including one family with five members working for the MWAA. One of the reasons given by the associate general counsel to defend the alleged nepotism was "if [the employees are] qualified and competed for [the positions] on their own, I don't see a problem with relatives working in the same organization."[135] The inspector general of theU.S. Department of Transportation and the US Congress pressured the MWAA to resolve practices of nepotism. Authority employees are no longer allowed to directly or indirectly influence the hiring or promotion of relatives, as documented in their ethics policy.[136]
Around 30 family members or relatives of PresidentUlysses S. Grant prospered financially in some way from either government appointments or employment.[137]
President Franklin Roosevelt submitted the name of his sonElliott Roosevelt to the Senate for promotion to brigadier general. Following threats of resignation and pressure, Elliott Roosevelt was made a rated pilot during World War II. A suitable vacancy could not be found for him after his father's death, and his last day of service wasVJ-Day. Franklin Roosevelt also appointed his son,James Roosevelt, as an administrative assistant to the president and a secretary to the president. James Roosevelt was the White House coordinator for 18 federal agencies.Time magazine suggested that he might be considered "Assistant President of the United States".
In 1979,Bill Clinton, within weeks of being newly elected as Governor of Arkansas, appointed his wife,Hillary, to chair the Rural Health Advisory Committee.[139] In 1993, newly elected as President of the United States, he againappointed his wife to chair a Task Force on National Health Care Reform. In 2013, Bill appointed his daughter,Chelsea, a member of the governing board of theClinton Foundation andClinton Global Initiative.[140]
In 2024, PresidentJoe Biden was accused of nepotism for pardoning his sonHunter Biden's federal felony gun and tax convictions, as well as any offense against the United States occurring between January 1, 2014 and December 1, 2024.[142][143]
Current (since 1995)[144] US court rulings have held that theWhite House itself does not constitute an "agency" for the purposes of adhering to existing anti-nepotism laws on the books.[145]
Nepotism is known to be practiced by the President of the Venezuelan National Assembly,Cilia Flores. Nine positions in the National Assembly were filled by Flores' family members, including a mother-in-law, aunt, three siblings, a cousin and her mother, and two nephews.[146][147]
Nepotism refers to partiality to family, whereascronyism refers to partiality to an associate orfriend.Favoritism, the broadest of the terms, refers to partiality based upon being part of a favored group, rather than job performance.[149]
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