Map showing distribution of Nepali speakers in South Asia. Dark red is areas with a Nepali-speaking majority or plurality, light red is where Nepali speakers are more than 20% of the population
Nepali is a highlyfusional language with a moderately freeword order, although the dominant arrangement issubject–object–verb word order (SOV). There are three major levels or gradations ofhonorific, as well as two more based on dialect and socio-economic class: low, medium, high, very high, and royal.[6] Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high or very high honorific signifies respect. The last, royal form was used to refer exclusively to and by the royal family. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages,Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Nepali developed significantliterature within a short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. Around 1830, several Nepali poets wrote on themes from theSanskrit epicsRamayana and theBhagavata Purana, which was followed byBhanubhakta Acharya translating theRamayana in Nepali which received "great popularity for the colloquial flavour of its language, its religious sincerity, and its realistic natural descriptions".[7]
The termNepali derived fromNepal was officially adopted by theGovernment of Nepal in 1933, whenGorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee), agovernment institution established in 1913 (B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself asNepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which is currently known asSajha Prakashan.[8] Conversely, the termGorkhali in the formernational anthem entitled "Shriman Gambhir" was changed toNepali in 1951.[9] However, the termNepali was used before the official adoption notably byJaya Prithvi Bahadur Singh, now considered one of thenational heroes of Nepal, who advocated for the embracement of the term.[10]
The initial name of Nepali language was "Khas Kura" (खस कुरा), meaning language or speech of theKhas people, who are descended from the ancientKhasas ofMahabharata, as the language developed during the rule of theKhasa Kingdom in thewestern Nepal.[11][12] Following theUnification of Nepal led byShah dynasty'sPrithvi Narayan Shah, Nepali language became known asGorakhā Bhāṣā (गोरखा भाषा;language of theGorkhas) as it was spoken byGorkhas.[13][14] The people living in thePahad or the hilly region, where it does not generally contain snow, called the languageParvate Kurā (पर्वते कुरा), meaning "the speech of the hills".[15][16]
During the times ofSena dynasty, who ruled a vast area inTerai and central hills of Nepal, Nepali language became influenced by the Indian languages includingAwadhi,Bhojpuri,Braj Bhasha andMaithili.[17] Nepali speakers and Senas had a close connect, subsequently, the language became thelingua franca in the area.[17] As a result, the grammar became simplified, vocabulary was expanded, and its phonology was softened, after it was syncretised, Nepali lost much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages.[17] In theKathmandu Valley (then known asNepal Mandala), Nepali language inscriptions can be seen during the reigns ofLakshmi Narasimha Malla andPratap Malla, which indicates the significant increment of Nepali speakers in Kathmandu Valley.[19]
Copper Inscription by King ofDoti,Raika Mandhata Shahi, atSaka Era 1612 (1747BS) in old Nepali language usingDevanagari script
Theinstitutionalisation of the Nepali language is believed to have started with theShah kings ofGorkha Kingdom, in the modern dayGorkha District of Nepal.[20] Following theUnification of Nepal, the language moved to the court of theKingdom of Nepal in the 18th century, where it became the state language.[20] One of the earliest works in the Middle Nepali was written during the reign ofRam Shah, King of Gorkha, a book by unknown writer calledRam Shah ko Jivani (A Biography of Ram Shah).[20]Prithvi Narayan Shah'sDivyopadesh, written toward the end of his life, around 1774–75, contains old Nepali dialect of the era, is considered as the first work of essay of Nepali literature.[21]
During this time Nepali developed a standardised prose in theLal mohar (royal charter)—documents related to the Nepalese Kingdom dealing with diplomatic writings, tax, and administrative records.[20] The language of theLal mohar is nearly modern with some minor differences in grammar and with a pre-modern orthography.[22] Few changes including changingKari (करि) toGari (गरि) and mergingHunu (हुनु) withcha (छ) to createhuncha (हुन्छ) were done.[22] The most prominent work written during this time wasBhanubhakta Acharya'sBhanubhakta Ramayana, a translation of the epicRamayana fromSanskrit to Nepali for the first time.[23] Acharya's work led to which some describe as "cultural, emotional and linguistic unification" of Nepal, comparatively toPrithvi Narayan Shah who unified Nepal.[24][25]
The modern period of Nepali begins in the early 20th century.[7] During this time the rulingRana dynasty made various attempts to make Nepali the language of education, notably, byDev Shumsher andChandra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana, who establishedGorkhapatra, and theGorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti respectively.[26][8] At this time, Nepali had limited literature compared toHindi andBengali languages, a movement notably inVaranasi, andDarjeeling was started to create uniformed Nepali identity, which was later adopted in Nepal following the1951 Nepalese revolution and during thePanchayat system.[26] In 1957,Royal Nepal Academy was established with the objectives of developing and promoting Nepali literature, culture, art and science.[27] During Panchayat, Nepal adopted a "One King, One Dress, One Language, One Nation" ideology, which promoted Nepali language as basis for Nepali nationalism, this time is considered to be aGolden Age for the language.[28][29]
InBhutan, native Nepali speakers, known asLhotshampa, are estimated at 35%[47] of the population. This number includes displacedBhutanese refugees, with unofficial estimates of the ethnic Bhutanese refugee population as high as 30 to 40%, constituting a majority in the south (about 242,000 people).[48]
Nepali is the third-most spoken language in the Australian state ofTasmania, where it is spoken by 1.3% of its population,[49] and fifth-most spoken language in theNorthern Territory, Australia, spoken by 1.3% of its population.[50] Nepali is the most spoken language other than English inRockdale andKogarah. InGranville,Campsie andAshfield it is the second most commonly spoken language other than English.Allawah andHurstville have third most Nepali speaking population inNew South Wales. There are regular Nepali language News papers and Magazines in Australia.
Nepali distinguishes six oral vowels and fivenasal vowels. /o/ does not have a phonemic nasal counterpart, although it is often infree variation with [õ].
Nepali has tendiphthongs: /ui̯/, /iu̯/, /ei̯/, /eu̯/, /oi̯/, /ou̯/, /ʌi̯/, /ʌu̯/, /ai̯/, and /au̯/.
[j] and [w] are nonsyllabicallophones of [i] and [u], respectively. Every consonant except [j], [w], and /ɦ/ has ageminate counterpart between vowels. /ɳ/ and /ʃ/ also exist in some loanwords such as /baɳ/बाण "arrow" and /nareʃ/नरेश "king", but these sounds are sometimes replaced with native Nepali phonemes. Themurmured stops may lose their breathy-voice between vowels and word-finally. Non-geminateaspirated and murmured stops may also become fricatives, with /pʰ/ as [ɸ], /bʱ/ as [β], /kʰ/ as [x], and /ɡʱ/ as [ɣ]. Examples of this are /sʌpʰa/ 'clean' becoming [sʌɸa] and /ʌɡʱaɖi/ 'before' becoming [ʌɣaɽi].[56]
Typically, sounds transcribed with the retroflex symbols ⟨ʈ, ʈʰ,ɖ, ɖʱ, ɽ, ɳ, ɽ̃⟩ are not purely retroflex [ʈ, ʈʰ,ɖ, ɖʱ,ɽ,ɳ, ɽ̃] but apical postalveolar [t̠, t̠ʰ,d̠, d̠ʱ,ɾ̠,n̠, ɾ̠̃]. Some speakers may use purely retroflex sounds after /u/ and /a/, but other speakers use the apical articulation in all positions.[56]
Final schwasmay or may not be preserved in speech. The following rules can be followed to figure out whether or not Nepali words retain the final schwa:
Schwa is retained if the final syllable is a conjunct consonant.अन्त (anta, 'end'),सम्बन्ध (sambandha, 'relation'),श्रेष्ठ (śreṣṭha, 'greatest'/a last name). Exceptions: conjuncts such asञ्चञ्ज inमञ्च (mañc, 'stage')गञ्ज (gañj, 'city') and occasionally the last nameपन्त (panta/pant).
For any verb form the final schwa is always retained unless the schwa-cancelling halanta is present.हुन्छ (huncha, 'it happens'),भएर (bhaera, 'in happening so; therefore'),गएछ (gaecha, 'he apparently went'), butछन् (chan, 'they are'),गईन् (gain, 'she went'). Meanings may change with the wrong orthography:गईन (gaina, 'she didn't go') vsगईन् (gain, 'she went').
Adverbs, onomatopoeia and postpositions usually maintain the schwa and if they don't, halanta is acquired:अब (aba 'now'),तिर (tira, 'towards'),आज (āja, 'today')सिम्सिम (simsim 'drizzle') vsझन् (jhan, 'more').
Few exceptional nouns retain the schwa such as:दु:ख (dukha, 'suffering'),सुख (sukha, 'pleasure').
Note: Schwas are often retained in music and poetry to add extra syllables when needed.
Nepali is a highlyfusional language with relatively freeword order, although the dominant arrangement isSOV (subject–object–verb). There are three major levels or gradations ofhonorifics, as well as two more based on dialect and class: low, medium, high, very high, and royal. Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. The very high grade is used by some speakers, and the highest level royal honorific, was used to refer to members of the royal family, and by the royals among themselves. Often it would also use unique or uncommon vocabulary.[57][6]
Honorific Grade
Nepali
IAST Transliteration
English
Low
तँ खान्छस्
tã khānchas
You eat (food).
Medium
तिमी खान्छौ
timī khānchau
High
तपाईं खानु हुन्छ
tapāīṃ khānu huncha
Very high
हजुर खानु होइसिन्छ
hajura khānu hoisincha
Royal
मौसुफ खानु होइबक्सिन्छ
mausupha khānu hoibaksincha
Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Instead, it relies heavily onperiphrasis, a marginal verbal feature of older Indo-Aryan languages.[58]
Nepali is generally written inDevanagari script. In certain regions, theTibetan script was also used in regions with predominantly Tibetic population, with common Tibetan expressions and pronunciation.[59][60]
Nepali developed significant literature within a short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fuelled byAdhyatma Ramayana; Sundarananda Bara (1833); Birsikka, an anonymous collection of folk tales; and a version of theancient Indian epicRamayana byBhanubhakta Acharya (d. 1868). The contribution of trio-laureatesLekhnath Paudyal,Laxmi Prasad Devkota, andBalkrishna Sama took Nepali to the level of other world languages. The contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially inDarjeeling andVaranasi in India, is also notable. Nepali-language speakers are rapidly migrating around the globe in last a couple of decades and many books of Nepali language literature are published from different corners of the world. Diasporic literature has developed new ways of thinking and created a new branch in Nepali language literature.
Dialects of Nepali include Acchami, Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali, Bheri, Dadeldhuri, Dailekhi, Darchulali, Darchuli, Gandakeli, Humli, Purbeli, and Soradi.[41] These dialects can be distinct from Standard Nepali. Mutual intelligibility between Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali (Bajura), Humli and Acchami is low.[41] The dialect of the Nepali language spoken inKarnali Province is not mutually intelligible with Standard Nepali. The language is known by its old name asKhas Bhasa in Karnali.[11]
धारा १. सबै व्यक्तिहरू जन्मजात स्वतन्त्र हुन् ती सबैको समान अधिकार र महत्व छ। निजहरूमा विचार शक्ति र सद्विचार भएकोले निजहरूले आपसमा भातृत्वको भावनाबाट व्यवहार गर्नु पर्छ।
Article 1. All human-beings from-birth independent are their all equal right and importance is. In themselves, intellect and conscience {endowed therefore} they {one another} brotherhood's spirit {treatment with} do must.
Translation (grammatical)
Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
^Vasistha, Kedar."'गोर्खा पत्रिकाहरू'को पदचाप".Gorakhapatra Online.Archived from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved9 November 2021. जङ्गबहादुरलाई पनि घिसार्ने गरिएको पाइन्छ तर उनको पालामा गोर्खा भाषा वा नेपाली भाषा नभनी पाष्या बोली वा पर्वते भाषाको प्रचलन रहेको देखिन्छ । तर उक्त सनद जारी भएको एक वर्षपछिको जङ्गबहादुरको एक पत्रमा उनले गोर्खा वा गोर्खाली वा नेपाली भाषाका नमुना भनी नभनी पाष्या (पाखे) बोली भनेका छन् ।
^Maharjan, Rajendra."एकल राष्ट्र–राज्यको धङधङी".EKantipur. Kantipur Publication Limited.Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved30 October 2021.आजभन्दा करिब नौ दशकअघि मात्रै देशको नाम 'नेपाल' का रूपमा स्विकारिएको हो भने, पहिले खस–पर्वते–गोर्खाली भनिने भाषालाई 'नेपाली' नामकरण गरिएको हो ।
^abYanjan, Yash (1999)."8".भारतमा नेपाली भाषा र साहित्यको उत्थानमा पारसमणी प्रधानले गरेका योगदानको बिश्लेषणात्मक मुल्यांकन (Thesis) (in Nepali). University of North Bengal.
^"The Constitution of Nepal"(PDF).Nepal Law Commission. 20 September 2015.Archived(PDF) from the original on 1 November 2022. Retrieved14 December 2022.
^"Thamatic Report: Ethnic Minorities"(PDF).bycensus2016.gov.hk/data/16bc-ethnic-minorities.pdf. Census and Statistics Department of Hong Kong. Retrieved29 September 2018.
^Karmācārya, Mādhavalāla; Nepal German Project on High Mountain Archaeology, eds. (2001).Ten documents from Mustang in the Nepali language (1667-1975 A.D.). Results of the Nepal German Project on High Mountain Archaeology. Bonn: VGH Wissenschaftsverlag.ISBN978-3-88280-061-6.
Clements, G.N. & Khatiwada, R. (2007). "Phonetic realization of contrastively aspirated affricates in Nepali." InProceedings of ICPhS XVI (Saarbrücken, 6–10 August 2007), 629- 632.[1]Archived 6 March 2009 at theWayback Machine
Hutt, M. & Subedi, A. (2003)Teach Yourself Nepali.
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