Aneodymium magnet (also known asNdFeB,NIB orNeo magnet) is apermanent magnet made from analloy ofneodymium,iron, andboron that forms the Nd2Fe14Btetragonal crystalline structure.[1] They are the most widely used type ofrare-earth magnet.[2]
Developed independently in 1984 byGeneral Motors andSumitomo Special Metals,[3][4][5] neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet available commercially.[1][6] They have replaced other types of magnets in many applications in modern products that require strong permanent magnets, such aselectric motors in cordless tools,hard disk drives and magnetic fasteners.
NdFeB magnets can be classified as sintered or bonded, depending on the manufacturing process used.[7][8]
General Motors (GM) and Sumitomo Special Metals independently discovered the Nd2Fe14B compound almost simultaneously in 1984.[3] The research was initially driven by the high raw materials cost ofsamarium-cobalt permanent magnets (SmCo), which had been developed earlier. GM focused on the development ofmelt-spun nanocrystalline Nd2Fe14B magnets, while Sumitomo developed full-densitysintered Nd2Fe14B magnets.[9]
GM commercialized its inventions ofisotropic Neo powder,bonded neo magnets, and the related production processes by founding Magnequench in 1986 (Magnequench has since become part of Neo Materials Technology, Inc., which later merged intoMolycorp). The company supplied melt-spun Nd2Fe14B powder to bonded magnet manufacturers. TheSumitomo facility became part ofHitachi, and has manufactured but also licensed other companies to produce sintered Nd2Fe14B magnets. Hitachi has held more than 600 patents covering neodymium magnets.[9]
Chinese manufacturers have become a dominant force in neodymium magnet production, based on their control of much of the world's rare-earth mines.[10]
TheUnited States Department of Energy has identified a need to find substitutes for rare-earth metals in permanent magnet technology and has funded such research. TheAdvanced Research Projects Agency-Energy has sponsored a Rare Earth Alternatives in Critical Technologies (REACT) program, to develop alternative materials. In 2011, ARPA-E awarded 31.6 million dollars to fund rare-earth substitute projects.[11] Because of its role in permanent magnets used forwind turbines, it has been argued that neodymium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running onrenewable energy. This perspective has been criticized for failing to recognize that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.[12]
In its pure form, neodymium has magnetic properties—specifically, it isantiferromagnetic, but only at low temperatures, below 19 K (−254.2 °C; −425.5 °F). However, some compounds of neodymium withtransition metals such asiron areferromagnetic, withCurie temperatures well above room temperature. These are used to make neodymium magnets.
The strength of neodymium magnets is the result of several factors. The most important is that thetetragonal Nd2Fe14B crystal structure has exceptionally high uniaxialmagnetocrystalline anisotropy (HA ≈ 7 T –magnetic field strength H in units of A/m versusmagnetic moment in A·m2).[13][3] This means a crystal of the material preferentially magnetizes along a specificcrystal axis but is very difficult to magnetize in other directions. Like other magnets, the neodymium magnet alloy is composed ofmicrocrystalline grains which are aligned in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture so their magnetic axes all point in the same direction. The resistance of the crystal lattice to turning its direction of magnetization gives the compound a very highcoercivity, or resistance to being demagnetized.
The neodymium atom can have a largemagnetic dipole moment because it has 4unpaired electrons in its electron structure[14] as opposed to (on average) 3 in iron. In a magnet it is the unpaired electrons, aligned so that their spin is in the same direction, which generate the magnetic field. This gives the Nd2Fe14B compound a highsaturation magnetization (Js ≈ 1.6 T or 16 kG) and a remanent magnetization of typically 1.3 teslas. Therefore, as the maximum energy density is proportional toJs2, this magnetic phase has the potential for storing large amounts of magnetic energy (BHmax ≈ 512 kJ/m3 or 64 MG·Oe).
This magnetic energy value is about 18 times greater than "ordinary" ferrite magnets by volume and 12 times by mass. This magnetic energy property is higher in NdFeB alloys than insamarium cobalt (SmCo) magnets, which were the first type of rare-earth magnet to be commercialized. In practice, the magnetic properties of neodymium magnets depend on the alloy composition, microstructure, and manufacturing technique employed.
The Nd2Fe14B crystal structure can be described as alternating layers of iron atoms and a neodymium-boron compound.[3] Thediamagnetic boron atoms do not contribute directly to the magnetism but improve cohesion by strong covalent bonding.[3] The relatively low rare earth content (12% by volume, 26.7% by mass) and the relative abundance of neodymium and iron compared withsamarium andcobalt makes neodymium magnets lower in price than the other majorrare-earth magnet family,samarium–cobalt magnets.[3]
Although they have higherremanence and much highercoercivity and energy product, neodymium magnets have lowerCurie temperature than many other types of magnets. That Nd2Fe14B maintains magnetic order up to beyond room temperature has been attributed to the Fe present in the material stabilising magnetic order on the Nd sub-lattice.[15] Special neodymium magnet alloys that includeterbium anddysprosium have been developed that have higher Curie temperature, allowing them to tolerate higher temperatures than those alloys containing only Nd.[16]
| Magnet | Br (T) | Hci (kA/m) | BHmax (kJ/m3) | TC | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (°C) | (°F) | ||||
| Nd2Fe14B, sintered | 1.0–1.4 | 750–2000 | 200–440 | 310–400 | 590–752 |
| Nd2Fe14B, bonded | 0.6–0.7 | 600–1200 | 60–100 | 310–400 | 590–752 |
| SmCo5, sintered | 0.8–1.1 | 600–2000 | 120–200 | 720 | 1328 |
| Sm(Co, Fe, Cu, Zr)7, sintered | 0.9–1.15 | 450–1300 | 150–240 | 800 | 1472 |
| Alnico, sintered | 0.6–1.4 | 275 | 10–88 | 700–860 | 1292–1580 |
| Sr-ferrite, sintered | 0.2–0.78 | 100–300 | 10–40 | 450 | 842 |
| Property | Neodymium | Sm-Co |
|---|---|---|
| Remanence (T) | 1–1.5 | 0.8–1.16 |
| Coercivity (MA/m) | 0.875–2.79 | 0.493–2.79 |
| Recoil permeability | 1.05 | 1.05–1.1 |
| Temperature coefficient of remanence (%/K) | −(0.12–0.09) | −(0.05–0.03) |
| Temperature coefficient of coercivity (%/K) | −(0.65–0.40) | −(0.30–0.15) |
| Curie temperature (°C) | 310–370 | 700–850 |
| Density (g/cm3) | 7.3–7.7 | 8.2–8.5 |
| Thermal expansion coefficient, parallel to magnetization (1/K) | (3–4)×10−6 | (5–9)×10−6 |
| Thermal expansion coefficient, perpendicular to magnetization (1/K) | (1–3)×10−6 | (10–13)×10−6 |
| Flexural strength (N/mm2) | 200–400 | 150–180 |
| Compressive strength (N/mm2) | 1000–1100 | 800–1000 |
| Tensile strength (N/mm2) | 80–90 | 35–40 |
| Vickers hardness (HV) | 500–650 | 400–650 |
| Electricalresistivity (Ω·cm) | (110–170)×10−6 | (50–90)×10−6 |
Sintered Nd2Fe14B tends to be vulnerable tocorrosion, especially alonggrain boundaries of asintered magnet. This type of corrosion can cause serious deterioration, including crumbling of a magnet into a powder of small magnetic particles, orspalling of a surface layer.
This vulnerability is addressed in many commercial products by adding a protective coating to prevent exposure to the atmosphere. Nickel, nickel-copper-nickel and zinc platings are the standard methods, although plating with other metals, or polymer and lacquer protective coatings, are also in use.[18]
Neodymium has a negative coefficient, meaning the coercivity along with the magnetic energy density (BHmax) decreases as temperature increases. Neodymium-iron-boron magnets have high coercivity at room temperature, but as the temperature rises above 100 °C (212 °F), the coercivity decreases drastically until the Curie temperature (around 320 °C or 608 °F). This fall in coercivity limits the efficiency of the magnet under high-temperature conditions, such as in wind turbines and hybrid vehicle motors.Dysprosium (Dy) orterbium (Tb) is added to curb the fall in performance from temperature changes. This addition makes the magnets more costly to produce.[19] The temperature dependence of the material's magnetic properties can be modelled withinelectronic structure calculations via application of thedisordered local moment (DLM) picture of magnetism at finite temperature.[15]
Neodymium magnets are graded according to theirmaximum energy product, which relates to themagnetic flux output per unit volume. Higher values indicate stronger magnets. For sintered NdFeB magnets, there is a widely recognized international classification. Their values range from N28 up to N55 with a theoretical maximum at N64. The first letter N before the values is short for neodymium, meaning sintered NdFeB magnets. Letters following the values indicate intrinsic coercivity and maximum operating temperatures (positively correlated with theCurie temperature), which range from default (up to 80 °C or 176 °F) to TH (230 °C or 446 °F).[20][21][22]
Grades of sintered NdFeB magnets:[7][further explanation needed][23][unreliable source?][24]
There are two principal neodymium magnet manufacturing methods:
Bonded neo Nd-Fe-B powder is bound in a matrix of a thermoplastic polymer to form the magnets. The magnetic alloy material is formed bysplat quenching onto a water-cooled drum. This metal ribbon is crushed to a powder and then heat-treated to improve itscoercivity. The powder is mixed with a polymer to form a mouldable putty, similar to aglass-filled polymer. This is pelletised for storage and can later be shaped byinjection moulding. An external magnetic field is applied during the moulding process, orienting the field of the completed magnet.[26][27]
In 2015,Nitto Denko of Japan announced their development of a new method of sintering neodymium magnet material. The method exploits an "organic/inorganic hybrid technology" to form a clay-like mixture that can be fashioned into various shapes for sintering. It is said to be possible to control a non-uniform orientation of the magnetic field in the sintered material to locally concentrate the field, for instance to improve the performance of electric motors. Mass production is planned for 2017.[28][29][needs update]
As of 2012, 50,000 tons of neodymium magnets are produced officially each year in China, and 80,000 tons in a "company-by-company" build-up done in 2013.[30] China produces more than 95% of rare earth elements and produces about 76% of the world's total rare-earth magnets, as well as most of the world's neodymium.[31][32][9]
Production of neodymium–iron–boron (NdFeB) permanent magnets is highly concentrated in East Asia: in 2024, analysts estimated global output at roughly 220,000–240,000 tonnes, with at least 85% manufactured in China; most of the remainder is made in Japan and Vietnam.[33] Japan is the second-largest producer with about 7% of the global market.[34] Vietnam's output is still small (around 1% in 2023) but is expanding as new factories come online.[35] Outside Asia, the United States and Europe have limited but growing capacity backed by industrial-policy initiatives and new plants.[36]
| Year | World production (tonnes) | China (%) | Japan (%) | United States (%) | Europe (%) | Vietnam (%) | Notes | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1985 | ~1,000 | 14% | 63% | — | — | — | US+Europe ≈23% (split not reported). | [37] |
| 1997 | ~12,000 | 40% | 40% | 11% | 9% | — | China reaches parity with Japan. | [38] |
| 2003 | ~30,200 | 68.6% | 27.4% | 0.4% | 3.6% | — | Sintered NdFeB only. | [39] |
| 2008 | ~66,000 | 78.5% | 19.8% | 0% | 1.7% | — | Sintered NdFeB only. | [40] |
| 2012 | ~100,000 (est.) | ~90% | ~8–9% | — | ~1–2% | — | Chinese production capacity >300,000 t vs. demand <100,000 t. | [41] |
| 2020 | ~136,000 | ≈92% | ≈7% | <1% | <1% (DE, SI, FI) | ≈1% | DOE estimate for sintered NdFeB magnets. | [42] |
| 2024 | ~220,000–240,000 | ≥85% | part of remainder | very small | very small | part of remainder | Most of remainder (~15%) attributed to Japan & Vietnam; U.S. and Europe only nascent capacity. | [43][44] |
Recycling of neodymium–iron–boron (NdFeB) magnets has become a growing research and industrial focus because these magnets contain criticalrare-earth elements such asneodymium,praseodymium,dysprosium, andterbium. Conventional magnet production depends on mining and refining rare-earth ores, processes that are energy intensive and environmentally damaging.[45]
Several approaches to magnet recycling are under development:
Pilot projects are under way in different regions to test the scalability of NdFeB magnet recycling. Pilot-scale recycling projects are now being developed in the United States. For example, U.S. startup HyProMag USA is planning an industrial-scale NdFeB magnet recycling facility near Dallas–Fort Worth, expected to begin operations in 2027 and process approximately 750 tonnes per year of recycled magnets.[51] In Europe, the EU-funded SUSMAGPRO project has demonstrated pilot-scale recycling of NdFeB magnets for use in loudspeakers, motors, and wind turbines.[52] In Japan, Envipro Holdings has signed a memorandum of understanding with HyProMag to carry out NdFeB recycling trials using scrap from the Japanese market.[53]
Neodymium magnets have replacedalnico and ferrite magnets in many of the myriad applications in modern technology where strong permanent magnets are required, because their greater strength allows the use of smaller, lighter magnets for a given application. Some examples are:
The great strength of neodymium magnets has inspired new applications in areas in which magnets were not previously used, such as magnetic jewelry clasps, foil insulation attachments, children's magnetic building sets and otherneodymium magnet toys, and the closing mechanisms of sport parachute equipment.[56] They are the main metal in the formerly popular desk-toy magnets, "Buckyballs" and "Buckycubes", though some U.S. retailers have chosen not to sell them because of child-safety concerns[57] and they have been banned in Canada for the same reason.[58] While a similar ban in the United States was lifted in 2016, the minimum age requirement advised by theCPSC is 14 and warning labels are required.[59]
The strength and magnetic field homogeneity of neodymium magnets has also opened new applications in the medical field with the introduction of openmagnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners used to image the body in radiology departments as an alternative to superconducting magnets that use a coil of superconducting wire to produce the magnetic field.[60]
Neodymium magnets are used as a surgically placed anti-reflux system, wherein a band of magnets[61] is surgically implanted around thelower esophageal sphincter to treatgastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).[62] They have also beenimplanted in the fingertips in order to providesensory perception of magnetic fields,[63] though this is an experimental procedure popular only among biohackers andgrinders.[64]
Neodymium is used as a magnetic crane, a device that lifts objects usingmagnetic force.[65] These cranes lift ferrous materials such as steel plates, pipes, and scrap metal using the persistent magnetic field of the permanent magnets without requiring a continuous power supply.[66] Magnetic cranes are used in scrap yards,shipyards,warehouses, andmanufacturing plants.[67]
NdFeB magnets are critical not only for civilian clean-energy technologies, such as electric vehicles and wind turbines, but also for high-performance military systems where compactness, power, and reliability are essential. The United States Department of Defense reports that[68]
The global supply chain for neodymium–iron–boron (NdFeB) magnets has deepgeopolitical implications. AsChina maintains a dominant position—accounting for over 85% of global production—other countries view this control as a strategic vulnerability, especially for industries such as defense, electric vehicles, and renewable energy.[69]
In August 2025, U.S. PresidentDonald Trump publicly warned that the United States would impose up to 200%tariffs on Chinese goods if Beijing restricted shipments of rare-earth magnets to the U.S., a move seen as leverage in broader trade negotiations.[70]
China, for its part, has moved to tighten control over exports of rare-earth magnets and related materials. Since April 2025, exporters must obtain a special license to ship certain rare-earth elements like dysprosium and terbium, as well as magnets, with export volumes dropping by around 74% in May compared to the previous year. This licensing mechanism is intended to serve as a flexible tool for exerting geopolitical leverage without triggering trade law violations.[71]
The greater forces exerted by rare-earth magnets create hazards that may not occur with other types of magnet. Neodymium magnets larger than a few cubic centimeters are strong enough to cause injuries as serious as broken bones to body parts pinched between two magnets or between a magnet and a ferrous metal surface.[72]
Magnets that get too near each other can strike each other with enough force to cause them to chip and shatter, and the flying chips can cause various injuries, especiallyeye injuries. There have even been cases in which young children who have swallowed several magnets have had sections of thedigestive tract pinched between two magnets, causing injury or death.[73] Serious health risk can also arise when working with machines that have magnets in or attached to them.[74]
The strong magnetic fields can also be hazardous to mechanical and electronic devices, as they can erase magnetic media such asfloppy disks andcredit cards and can magnetize watches and theshadow masks ofCRT-type monitors at a greater distance than other types of magnet. Chipped magnets can act as a fire hazard as they come together, sending sparks flying as if they were a lighterflint, because some neodymium magnets containferrocerium.