This article is about the global nationalist-populist wave that appeared in the mid-2010s. For the policy associated with Theodore Roosevelt, seeNew Nationalism (Theodore Roosevelt).
Neo-nationalism,[1][2][3] ornew nationalism,[4][5] is an ideology andpolitical movement built on the basic characteristics of classicalnationalism.[6] It developed to its final form by applying elements withreactionary character generated as a reaction to the political, economic and demographic changes that came withglobalization during the second wave of globalization in the 1980s.[7][8][9]
Neo-nationalism is considered a pan-West European phenomenon. It has its origins in the post-Cold War period and the changes that the third phase ofglobalization brought to the West European states. The European Union integration and enlargement gave rise to a series of economic, social, and political changes causing uncertainties on an individual and collective level.[25][26] Empowerment of the European Union by extending its members and the referendums onEuropean Constitution formed the idea of a transnational quasi-state[27] and a global nation under liberaldemocracy as the single political ideology that governs that transnational state. After the referendum on theTreaty to establish a Constitution for Europe was rejected, the delegation of nationalsovereignty to the European Union was seen by the neo-nationalists as a strategic act that aims at accumulation of power that undermines states’ national sovereignty and their right toself-determination.
The dramatic events that marked the Islamic world in the 1980s such as theIranian Revolution set a start of increased immigration towards Western European states.[28] The problems that immigrants encountered in relation to their arrival, accommodation, and integration within the domestic society of the hosting state motivated restructure of the political agenda and policy adjustments that integrated the diversity of immigrants. The inclusion of "foreign principles" next to the traditional elements that constitute the character of the hosting state as criteria for policy led to the feeling of the threat neo-nationalist felt. This process was framed as "Islamization" and turned into the explanatory factor for a specific defensive collective behaviour.[29]
The conflicts and the violence that followed after the political destabilization in some Muslim majority states led to the categorisation of Islam as having an anti-democratic and anti-modern character that is at odds with Westernliberal democracy. After theSeptember 11 attacks, this image of Islam became dominant. The perceived sense of a "Islamic threat" to modern European culture resulted in the rise of national awareness and pride in terms of culture and folklore and a need of protection the national cultural identity.[30][31]
Neo-nationalism is the successor to classicalnationalism. Both nationalists and neo-nationalists see the nation as one family but differ in the criteria for affiliation. Nationalists see the state and the nation as a family whose members are inextricably linked based on ethnical, racial, genetic, religious or cultural homogeneity as criteria of belonging[32] In contrast, neo-nationalists take historical association as the major factor for granting membership to the national family, which makes them fundamentally different from their predecessors in terms of inclusiveness.[33]
Writing forPolitico, Michael Hirsh described new nationalism as "a bitterpopulist rejection of the status quo that global elites have imposed on the international system since theCold War ended, and which lower-income voters have decided—understandably—is unfair."[4][5] Michael Brendan Dougherty wrote inThe Week that new nationalism is a "broadnativist revolt" against post-Cold War politics long "characterized by an orthodoxy offree trade, nurturing theservice economy,neoliberal trading arrangements, and liberalized immigration policies."[34] Political science professorEirikur Bergmann defines new-nationalism as being a specific kind of nativist populism.[3]
The Economist wrote in November 2016 that "new nationalists are riding high on promises to close borders and restore societies to a past homogeneity."[35]Clarence Page wrote in theLas Vegas Sun that a new neo-tribal nationalism has boiled up in European politics and to a lesser degree in the United States since the2008 financial crisis.[36] InThe Week, Ryan Cooper and researchers with theCentre for Economic Policy Research[37] have linked 21st-centuryright-wing populism to theGreat Recession.[38] According to Harvard political theoristYascha Mounk, "economic stagnation among lower- and middle-class whites [has been] a main driver for nationalism's rise around the globe."[39] According to religion scholar Mark L. Movesian, new nationalism "sets the nation-state against supranational, liberal regimes like the EU or NAFTA, and local customs and traditions, including religious traditions, against alien, outside trends."[40]
Writing forThe Week, Damon Linker called the idea of neo-nationalism being racist "nonsense" and went on to say that "the tendency of progressives to describe it as nothing but 'racism, Islamophobia, and xenophobia'—is the desire to delegitimize any particularistic attachment or form of solidarity, be it national, linguistic, religious, territorial, or ethnic."[42]
Regarding new nationalism,The Economist said that "Mr Trump needs to realise that his policies will unfold in the context of other countries' jealous nationalism" and called nationalism itself a "slippery concept" that is "easy to manipulate". They also repeatedly contrastedethnic nationalism andcivic nationalism and implied new nationalism could become "angry" and difficult to control, citingChinese nationalism as an example.[43]
The president of BrazilJair Bolsonaro of the country'sLiberal Party has been described as a leading new nationalist.[44] Bolsonaro's ideology and policies have been heavily influenced by his adviser, nationalist thinkerOlavo de Carvalho.[45][46]
Indian Prime MinisterNarendra Modi (assumed office in 2014) and hisBharatiya Janata Party (BJP) have been referred to as neo-nationalist.[49] Modi is a volunteer in theRashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a religio-socio-cultural voluntary[52] organisation to which the BJP is aligned with, which has also been said to advocate a neo-nationalist ideology.[53] Modi's nationalist campaigns have been directed by BJP strategistAmit Shah, who currently serves as the Indian Home Minister (assumed office in 2019), and has been touted as a potential successor to Modi as Prime Minister.[54]
Yogi Adityanath, Chief Minister of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh (assumed office in 2017), has also been identified as a neo-nationalist.[55] He has also been touted as a future Prime Minister of the country.[56]
Israeli Prime MinisterBenjamin Netanyahu (assumed office from 2009 to 2021), the leader of theLikud party, has been described both as promoting new nationalism,[57] and as pursuing a foreign policy of close ties with other new nationalist leaders, including Trump, Orbán, Salvini, Putin, Modi, Bolsonaro, Duterte and Sisi.[58][59][60][61][62]
Italian Prime MinisterGiuseppe Conte (assumed office in 2018), head of the populist coalitionGovernment of Change,[64] and in particular former Deputy Prime Minister and Interior Minister and theLeague's leaderMatteo Salvini (2018–2019), were often described as new nationalists.[65][66][67] While in office, Salvini was described by some media outlets as the most powerful politician in the country, and a "de facto prime minister".[68][69][70] In August 2019, Salvini filed a motion of no confidence in the coalition government, asking new election to take "full powers",[71] but Conte formed anew government betweenFive Star Movement (M5S) andDemocratic Party (PD).[72] At the head of this new cabinet, Conte toned down his neo-nationalist rhetoric.[73]
The 63rd Prime MinisterShinzō Abe (assumed office from 2012 to 2020), a member of the far-right organisationNippon Kaigi, promoted ideas of new nationalism, as did theLiberal Democratic Party of Japan, which he led.[78]
Mexican PresidentAndrés Manuel López Obrador (assumed office in 2018) has been described as Neo-nationalist and often dubbed as "Mexican Donald Trump" by the media.[79][80]
Former Pakistani prime ministerImran Khan (2018–2022), the leader of the then-rulingPakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (Pakistan Movement for Justice) was compared toDonald Trump and described as a neo-nationalist populist during his tenure.[81]
Philippine PresidentRodrigo Duterte (assumed office in 2016) has been described as a new nationalist.[82] His partyPDP-Laban has adopted Filipino nationalism as a platform.[82] The country has also a "far-right" reputation politically.[82]Bongbong Marcos, elected in2022, is expected to govern in continuity with Duterte with a more far-right agenda.[83][needs update]
Confederation party is a main political party in Poland that promotes New Nationalism, especiallyNational Movement. There is also a neofascist and National RadicalNarodowe Odrodzenie Polski that promotes harshly anti-globalist, anti-immigrant and anti-liberal agenda.
President of RussiaVladimir Putin (second President of Russia from 2000 to 2008 and fourth President of Russia from 2012) has been labelled a new nationalist.[17] Putin has been described by Hirsh as "the harbinger of this new global nationalism".[4] Charles Clover, the Moscow bureau chief of theFinancial Times from 2008 to 2013, wrote a book in 2016 titledBlack Wind, White Snow: The Rise of Russia's New Nationalism.[84]Russian nationalist thinkerAleksandr Dugin in particular has had influence over the Kremlin, serving as an adviser to key members of the rulingUnited Russia party, including now-SVR DirectorSergey Naryshkin.[85]
Russia has been accused of supporting new nationalist movements across the Western World.[86]
The Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia,Mohammad bin Salman (assumed office in 2017), has been described by Kristin Diwan ofThe Arab Gulf States Institute as being attached to a "strong new nationalism".[87] The "new Saudi nationalism" has been used to bolster support for the Kingdom's economic and foreign policies, and represents a shift away from the Kingdom's earlier dependence on religion for legitimacy.[88] Many of the country's foreign policy actions from 2017 onwards, such as itsblockade of Qatar and itsdiplomatic dispute with Canada have been described as motivated by this nationalism.[89] The policies of Mohammad bin Salman's administration have been heavily influenced by his adviserSaud al-Qahtani, who has been described as a "nationalist ideologue" and whose role has been compared to that formerly ofSteve Bannon.[90][91]
In 2014,Mustafa Akyol wrote of a new "brand of Turkish neonationalism" promoted byJustice and Development Party (AKP), the country's ruling party, whose leader is PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan (assumed office in 2014).[92][17] The Turkish "new nationalism" replaces the secular character of traditional forms ofTurkish nationalism with an "assertively Muslim" identity.[93]
Devlet Bahçeli, the leader of theNationalist Movement Party (MHP), has been described as creating a "new nationalist front" by forming thePeople's Alliance with Erdoğan's AKP in 2018.[94] The MHP is affiliated with theGrey Wolves paramilitary organisation, which Erdoğan has also expressed support for.[95]
The United Arab Emirates, under the leadership of Crown Prince of Abu DhabiMohammed bin Zayed (assumed office in 2004), has been described as propagating a "newArab nationalism", which replaces the older, leftist form of the Arab nationalist ideology with a more conservative form, through its strong support for the rise of the respective new leaders of Egypt and Saudi Arabia, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi and Prince Mohammad bin Salman, as a means of countering Iranian and Turkish influence in the Arab states.[citation needed]
The23 June 2016 referendum in the United Kingdom to leave the European Union ("Brexit") has been described as a milestone of neo-nationalism.[96][97]Owen Matthews noted similarities in motives for support of the Brexit movement and Donald Trump in the United States. He wrote inNewsweek that supporters of both are motivated by "a yearning to control immigration, reverse globalization and restore national greatness by disengaging from the wide, threatening world".[98]
Donald Trump's rise to theRepublican candidacy in 2016 was widely described as a sign of growing new nationalism in the United States.[4][5] AChicago Sun-Times editorial on the day of theinauguration of Donald Trump called him "our new nationalist president".[102] The appointment ofSteve Bannon, the executive ofBreitbart News (later cofoundingThe Movement), as White House Chief Strategist, was described by one analyst as arousal of a "new world order, driven by patriotism and a fierce urge to look after your own, a neo-nationalism that endlessly smears Muslims and strives to turn back the clock on free trade and globalization, a world where military might counts for far more than diplomacy and compromise".[103]
In the wake of Trump's election, U.S. SenatorMarco Rubio has called for the Republican Party to embrace a "new nationalism" to oppose "economic elitism that has replaced a commitment to the dignity of work with a blind faith in financial markets and that views America simply as an economy instead of a nation."[104]
Donald Trump, businessman, television personality, politician, president of the United States (2017–2021, 2025–2029) and member of theRepublican Party.[137]
Marco Rubio, U.S. Senator from Florida and member of the Republican Party.[138]
Steve Bannon, American political figure, former White House Chief Strategist and former executive chairman ofBreitbart News.[139]
^abEger, Maureen A.; Valdez, Sarah (2014). "Neo-nationalism in Western Europe".European Sociological Review.31 (1):115–130.doi:10.1093/esr/jcu087.Based on our combined analyses, we conclude that contemporary anti-immigrant parties constitute a new and distinct party family, which we term neo-nationalist.
^Crouch, Colin; Sakalis, Alex; Bechler, Rosemary (2 October 2016)."Educating for democracy".openDemocracy.Some protagonists of the new nationalism – such as Donald Trump and Marine Le Pen – also advocate a retreat from the global economy into individual protectionist nation states.
^Bangstad, Sindre (2018). "The New Nationalism and its Relationship to Islam".Diversity and Contestations over Nationalism in Europe and Canada. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 285–311.doi:10.1057/978-1-137-58987-3_11.ISBN978-1-137-58986-6.
^McDonald, Maryon. (1989)."We are not French!" : language, culture, and identity in Brittany. Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-00632-3.OCLC19922545.
^Seiser, Gertraud.On the importance of being the last one : iheritance and marriage in an Austrian peasant community.OCLC610993126.
^DeBardeleben, Joan 1950– Hurrelmann, Achim 1974– (2011).Transnational Europe : promise, paradox, limits. Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-230-30637-0.OCLC903291338.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Indra de Soysa and Ragnhild Nordås (December 2007).Replication data for: Islam's Bloody Innards?. Indra de Soysa and Ragnhild Nordås.OCLC729701975.
^Rath, Jan; Sunier, Thijl; Meyer, Astrid (1999), "Der Islam in den Niederlanden: Zur Bedeutung islamischer Institutionen in einer entsäulten Gesellschaft",Fundamentalismusverdacht, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, pp. 74–84,doi:10.1007/978-3-663-10116-1_5,ISBN978-3-8100-2500-5
^Praag, Carlo van. (2000).Multicultureel drama voor uitverkochte zaal : op zoek naar de genzen van multicultureel Nederland.OCLC775376190.
^Huinder, Chris (M.C.), 1950– Schnabel, Paul, 1948– Gowricharn, Ruben S. (Ruben Sewpersad), 1952– Mok, Ineke (Regina Johanna Maria), 1959– (2000).De multiculturele illusie. FORUM.ISBN978-90-5714-069-3.OCLC67730422.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Economic Freedom Fighters
National Council for the Defense of Democracy – Forces for the Defense of Democracy (Burundi)
ZANU-PF[231]
Republican Party (United States), especially theTrumpist wing[232]
Communist Party of Cuba[233]
Liberal Party (Brazil, 2006)
Republican Party (Chile, 2019)
United Socialist Party of Venezuela
Chinese Communist Party
Communist Party of Vietnam[233]
Katipunan ng Demokratikong Pilipino[234]
Kuomintang
Gerindra Party
Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)
One Nation in Australia[235]
Alternative for Germany[236]
TheDanish People's Party, which provided parliamentary support for the centre-right governing coalition led byVenstre Party (2001–2011, 2015–2019)[237]
The DutchParty for Freedom[238]
TheNational Alliance, a member of thegoverning coalition in Latvia (since 2016)[239]
TheSlovak National Party, a member of thegoverning coalition in Slovakia (2016–2020)[181]
TheSweden Democrats[241]
TheSwiss People's Party, a member of thegoverning coalition in Switzerland (since 1929)[242]
TheReform UK
The FlemishVlaams Belang[237]
The NorwegianProgress Party (Norway)