Iron Age states of modern Syria and Turkey
Luwian andAramean states (c. 800 BCE) The states calledNeo-Hittite ,Syro-Hittite (in older literature), orLuwian-Aramean (in modern scholarly works) wereLuwian andAramean regionalpolities of theIron Age , situated in southeastern parts of modernTurkey and northwestern parts of modernSyria , known in ancient times as lands ofHatti andAram . They arose following the collapse of theHittite New Kingdom in the 12th century BCE, and lasted until they were subdued by theAssyrian Empire in the 8th century BCE. They are grouped together by scholars, on the basis of several cultural criteria, that are recognized as similar and mutually shared between both societies, northern (Luwian ) and southern (Aramaean ). Cultural exchange between those societies is seen as a specific regional phenomenon, particularly in light of significant linguistic distinctions between the two main regional languages, withLuwian belonging to theAnatolian group ofIndo-European languages andAramaic belonging to theNorthwest Semitic group ofSemitic languages . Several questions related to the regional grouping of Luwian and Aramaean states are viewed differently among scholars, including some views that are critical towards such grouping in general.[ 1] [ 2] [ 3] [ 4] [ 5] [ 6]
İvriz relief , with GodTeshub (on the left) and kingWarpalawas (ca 730-710 BCE) (right)One of the most contested issues within the field is related to the choice of proper terms for this group of states. On that issue, scholars are divided into several categories. Some prefer terms that are derived fromendonymic (native) names forLuwians andArameans , thus using terms likeLuwian-Aramean orAramean-Luwian . Others prefer to use terms that are derived from variousexonymic (foreign) names, thus proposing designations likeSyrian-Anatolian orSyro-Anatolian , based on Greek termAnatolia , combined with anachronistic application ofSyrian labels, in the sense that was introduced much later, by ancient Greeks, as their designation for Arameans and their land (Aram ). Such preference for foreign terms, advocated by some western scholars, is viewed as beingculturally biased , and thus insensitive towards native (endonymic) terminology. Some scholars still use older terms, likeSyro-Hittite andNeo-Hittite , but those terms have several additional meanings in scholarly literature. More precise termPost-Hittite is also used, as a broad designation for the entire period of Anatolian history spanning from the 12th to the 6th century BCE.[ 7] [ 8] [ 9] [ 10] [ 11]
Anachronistic uses ofSyrian labels in modern scholarly literature were additionally challenged after the recent discovery of the bilingualÇineköy inscription from the 8th century BCE, written inLuwian andPhoenician languages. The inscription contained references to the neighbouringAssyria , inscribed in a specific form that renders asSyria , thus providing additional (and in the same time the oldest) evidence for the dominant scholarly view on the origins and primary meanings of the termSyria , that originated as anapheretic form of the term Assyria, and was redefined much later, by ancient Greeks, who introduced a territorial distinction between two names, and started to use termSyria as a specific designation for western regions (ancientAram ). For ancient Luwians,Syria was designation forAssyria proper, thus revealing the later Greek use of the termSyria as very different from its original meaning, and also anachronistic if used in modern scientific descriptions of historical realities, related to Luwian and Aramean states of the Iron Age.[ 12] [ 13] [ 14]
Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition [ edit ] TheHittite New Kingdom and its zone of influence (political and cultural) during the 14th and the 13th centuries BCE The collapse of theHittite New Kingdom is usually associated with the gradual decline of Eastern Mediterranean trade networks and the resultingcollapse of major Late Bronze Age cities in the Levant, Anatolia and the Aegean.[ 15] Wilusa (Troy ) was destroyed[ 16] Hittite New Kingdom suffered a sudden devastating attack from theKaskas , who occupied the coasts around theBlack Sea , and who joined with theMysians . They proceeded to destroy almost all Hittite sites but were finally defeated by theAssyrians beyond the southern borders near theTigris .[ 17] Hatti ,Arzawa (Lydia ),Alashiya (Cyprus ),Ugarit andAlalakh were destroyed.[ 17]
Hattusa , theHittite capital, was completely destroyed. Following this collapse of large cities and the Hittite state, the Early Iron Age in northernMesopotamia saw a dispersal of settlements and ruralization, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages, and farmsteads.[ 18] [ 19] [ 20] [ 21]
Aside from literary evidence from inscriptions, the uninterrupted cultural continuity of Post-Hittite states in the region, during the transitional period between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, is now further confirmed by recent archaeological work at the Temple of the Storm God on the citadel ofAleppo ,[ 22] Ain Dara temple ,[ 23]
List of Syro-Hittite states [ edit ] VariousLuwian andAramean (orange shades) states in the 8th century BCE The Syro–Hittite states may be divided into two groups: a northern group whereHittite rulers remained in power, and a southern group whereAramaeans came to rule from about 1000 BCE. These states were highly decentralised structures; some appear to have been only loose confederations of sub-kingdoms.[ 24] [ 25]
The northern group includes:
The southern group includes:
Luwian monumental inscriptions inAnatolian hieroglyphs continue almost uninterrupted from the 13th-century Hittite imperial monuments to the Early Iron Age Syro-Hittite inscriptions of Karkemish, Melid, Aleppo and elsewhere.[ 29] [ 30] Aramaic ,Phoenician orAkkadian versions. The Early Iron Age in NorthernMesopotamia also saw a gradual spread of alphabetic writing inAramaic andPhoenician . During the cultural interactions on the Levantine coast of Syro-Palestine and North Syria in the 10th through 8th centuries BCE, Greeks andPhrygians adopted the alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians.[ 31]
^ Hawkins 1982 , p. 372-441.^ Hawkins 1995c , p. 87-101.^ Sader 2010 , p. 273-300.^ Sader 2014 , p. 11–36.^ Sader 2016 , p. 61-76.^ Osborne 2020 .^ Hawkins 1982 , p. 372-375.^ Sader 2010 , p. 287-298.^ Gilibert 2011 , p. 2.^ Bryce 2012 , p. 79-80.^ Osborne 2020 , p. 4-7.^ Rollinger 2006a , p. 72-82.^ Rollinger 2006b , p. 283-287.^ Messo 2011 , p. 111–114.^ Hawkins 1994 , p. 91-94.^ C. Mossé (1984).La Grèce archaïcque d'Homère à Eschyle . Editions du Seuil. Paris: p. 35. ^a b Gurney 1954 , p. 49-50.^ See Wilkinson, Tony J.; 2003.Archaeological landscapes of the Near East. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press. ^ Hawkins 1995a , p. 1295-1307.^ Hawkins 1995b , p. 75–86.^ See "Karkamish" and "Melid" in Hawkins, John David; 2000.Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. (3 vols) De Gruyter: Berlin. ^ Kohlmeyer, Kay; 2000a. Der Tempel des Wettergottes von Aleppo. Münster: Rhema. ^ Abū Assaf, Alī; 1990. Der Tempel von ءAin Dārā. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. ^ Tübinger Bibelatlas / Tübingen Bible Atlas . Siegfried Mittmann, Götz Schmitt (eds.), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2001, Map B IV 13-14^ Gurney 1954 , p. 39-46.^ Bryce 2012 , p. 129.^ D. T. Potts (27 April 2012).A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East ISBN 9781444360769 ^ See theTayinat Website Archived 2014-05-27 at theWayback Machine by the Department of Near & Middle Eastern Civilizations at the University of Toronto ^ Hawkins 1986 , p. 363-376.^ Hawkins; 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I, Inscriptions of the Iron Age, De Gruyter, pp. 17-23; Giusfredi; Federico; 2010. Sources for a Socio-Economic History of the Neo-Hittie States, Winter Verlag, pp. 37-44; Simon, Zsolt; 2011. Hethitische Topoi in der hieroglyphen-luwischen Historiographie: Bemerkungen zur Frage der Kontinuität, in M. Hutter and S. Hutter-Braunsar, Hethitische Literatur Überlieferungsprozess, Textstrukturen, Ausdrucksformen Und Nachwirken, Ugarit Verlag, pp. 227-244. ^ Brixhe, C. and M. Lejeune (1984).Corpus des inscriptions paléo-phrygiennes . Paris. Amadasi-Guzzo, Maria Giulia (2019)."What Do We Know about the Borders and Exchanges between Aram and Phoenicia in the 9th–8th Centuries B.C.E. in Anatolia and Syria?" .Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 149– 171.ISBN 9789004398535 Bagg, Ariel M. (2019)."At the Limits of Historical Geography: Reconstructing Aramaean Territories in the West According to the Neo-Assyrian Written Sources" .Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 1– 25.ISBN 9789004398535 Bryce, Trevor R. (2012).The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History ISBN 9780191505027 Dušek, Jan (2019)."The Kingdom of Arpad/Bīt-Agūsi: Its Capital, and Its Borders" .Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 172– 202.ISBN 9789004398535 Edmonds, Alexander J. (2019)."A People without Borders? Tracing the Shifting Identities and Territorialities of the Ahlameans" .Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 26– 62.ISBN 9789004398535 Gilibert, Alessandra (2011).Syro-Hittite Monumental Art and the Archaeology of Performance: The Stone Reliefs at Carchemish and Zincirli in the Earlier First Millennium BCE ISBN 9783110222258 Gurney, Oliver R. (1954) [1952].The Hittites Gzella, Holger (2015).A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam ISBN 9789004285101 Greenfield, Jonas C. (1998). "Arameans and Aramaic in Anatolia".XXXIVème Rencontre assyriologique internationale . Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi. pp. 199– 207. Hawkins, John David (1982)."The Neo-Hittite States in Syria and Anatolia" .The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 372– 441.ISBN 9780521224963 Hawkins, John David (1986)."Writing in Anatolia: Imported and Indigenous Systems" .World Archaeology .17 (3):363– 376.doi :10.1080/00438243.1986.9979976 .JSTOR 124701 . Hawkins, John David (1994)."The end of the Bronze age in Anatolia: New Light from Recent Discoveries" .Anatolian Iron Ages . Vol. 3. London-Ankara: British Institute of Archeology at Ankara. pp. 91– 94.ISBN 9781912090693 Hawkins, John David (1995a)."Karkamish and Karatepe: Neo-Hittite City-States in North Syria" .Civilizations of the Ancient Near East . Vol. 2. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. pp. 1295– 1307.ISBN 9780684197210 Hawkins, John David (1995b)."Great Kings and Country Lords at Malatya and Karkamiš" .Studio Historiae Ardens: Ancient Near Eastern Studies . Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul. pp. 75– 86.ISBN 9789062580750 Hawkins, John David (1995c)."The Political Geography of North Syria and South-East Anatolia in the Neo-Assyrian Period" .Neo-Assyrian Geography . Roma: Università di Roma. pp. 87– 101. Lipiński, Edward (2000).The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion ISBN 9789042908598 Lipiński, Edward (2013)."The Aramaeans in the West (13th–8th centuries)" .Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylonia and Palestine in the First Millennium B.C . Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 123– 147.ISBN 9783447065443 Messo, Johny (2011)."The Origin of the Terms Syria(n) and Suryoyo: Once Again" .Parole de l'Orient .36 :111– 125.Osborne, James F. (2012)."Communicating Power in the Bīt-Ḫilāni Palace" .Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research .368 :29– 66.doi :10.5615/bullamerschoorie.368.0029 .S2CID 156406413 . Osborne, James F. (2014)."Settlement Planning and Urban Symbology in Syro-Anatolian Cities" .Cambridge Archaeological Journal .24 (2):195– 214.doi :10.1017/S0959774314000444 Osborne, James F. (2017)."Exploring the Lower Settlements of Iron Age Capitals in Anatolia and Syria" .Antiquity .91 (355):90– 107.doi :10.15184/aqy.2016.254 .S2CID 164449885 . Osborne, James F. (2020).The Syro-Anatolian City-States: An Iron Age Culture ISBN 9780199315833 Richelle, Matthieu (2019)."The Fluctuating Borders of Hamath (10th–8th Centuries B.C.E.)" .Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 203– 228.ISBN 9789004398535 Rollinger, Robert (2006a)."Assyrios, Syrios, Syros und Leukosyros" .Die Welt des Orients .36 :72– 82.JSTOR 25684050 . Rollinger, Robert (2006b)."The Terms Assyria and Syria Again" (PDF) .Journal of Near Eastern Studies .65 (4):283– 287.doi :10.1086/511103 .S2CID 162760021 .Sader, Hélène (2000)."The Aramaean Kingdoms of Syria: Origin and Formation Processes" .Essays on Syria in the Iron Age . Louvain: Peeters Press. pp. 61– 76.ISBN 9789042908789 Sader, Hélène (2010)."The Aramaeans of Syria: Some Considerations on their Origin and Material Culture" .The Books of Kings: Sources, Composition, Historiography and Reception . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 273– 300.ISBN 978-9004177291 Sader, Hélène (2014)."History" .The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria . Leiden: Brill. pp. 11– 36.ISBN 9789004229433 Sader, Hélène (2016)."The Formation and Decline of the Aramaean States in Iron Age Syria" .State Formation and State Decline in the Near and Middle East . Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 61– 76.ISBN 9783447105651 Simon, Zsolt (2019)."Aramaean Borders: the Hieroglyphic Luwian Evidence" .Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 125– 148.ISBN 9789004398535 Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016).A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities ISBN 9781628370843
Bronze Age Iron Age Classical Age
Territories/[ 1] [ 2] [ 3] [ 4] [ 5] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Kish /Assur Akshak /Akkad Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam 4000–3200 BCE Naqada I Naqada II Egypt–Mesopotamia relations Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)Susa I Uruk period Anu Ziggurat , 4000 BCE)Susa II 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period Naqada III )Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer /Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Palette Narmer Menes Neithhotep ♀ (regent)Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith ♀ (regent)Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite Susa III )2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)First Eblaite First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynastyJushur ,Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma ,En-tarah-ana Babum ,Puannum ,Kalibum 2800 BCE
Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynastyMeshkiangasher Enmerkar ("conqueror ofAratta ")2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)Zamug ,Tizqar ,Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[ 6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period Indo-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Egyptian pyramids )Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynastyUhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugal- Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug Puabi )Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mesh-he Melem-ana Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500–539 BCE)Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Enna-Dagan Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba ♀ Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Uruk II dynastyEnsha- Mug-si Umma I dynastyPabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynastyUr-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions[ 6] Shushun-Tarana Napi-Ilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Kish IV dynastyPuzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Urur Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu Bara-irnun )Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynastyMesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kikku-Siwe-Temti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynastyLugal-Anne-Mundu 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion byMari [ 6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynastyLugal-zage-si 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare SecondEblaite Third kingdom of Mari Shakkanakku Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi ,Imi ,Nanum ,Ilulu (3 years)Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynastyUr-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynastyPuzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynastyLugalannatum Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare
Uruk V dynastyUtu-hengal 2100 BCE (Vassals of UR III) Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar [ 7] Ur III dynasty Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin 2025–1763 BCE Amorite invasionsIbbi-Sin Elamite invasionsKindattu (Shimashki Dynasty )Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Third Eblaite Amorites )Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma (Amorite Shakkanakkus )Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan Lim Dynasty ofMari Amorites )Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (QueenShibtu ) Old Assyria Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Isin-Larsa period Amorites )Dynasty of Isin Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Ishtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa :Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...)Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty : Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of UrukSîn-kāšid Sîn-iribamSîn-gāmil Ilum-gamilAn-am Irdanene Rîm-Anum Nabi-ilišuSukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu ♀ 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham Biblical )Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad Yamhad dynasty )Old Assyria (Shamshi-Adad dynastyShamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Adaside dynasty Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II
First Babylonian dynasty Amorites )Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-Muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-Eshuh Ammi-Ditana Ammi-Saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynastySealand Dynasty ") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar m DIŠ+U-ENPeshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Abydos Seventeenth
Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hyksos ")Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni Kirta Shuttarna I Baratarna 1531–1155 BCE Tutankhamun New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites ) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-Harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burna-Buriash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliash IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE)Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha
Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut ♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten ♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Suppiluliuma I Mursili II Muwatalli II Mursili III Hattusili III Tudhaliya IV Suppiluliuma II Ugarit (vassal of Hittites)Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret ♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II
Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Carchemish Tabal Middle Assyria Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin ") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef
Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat ♀ (regent)Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Eight Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings)Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Taharqa Black Pharaohs ")Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser † Shalmaneser † Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon † Sennacherib † Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi † Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon † Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II
Assyrian conquest of Egypt Assyrian conquest of Elam 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt )Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Argead dynasty andPtolemaic Egypt Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Ceraunus Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II ♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis ♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator ♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra ♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira ♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III ♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV ♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III ♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V ♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena ♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea ♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator ♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV ♀ Hellenistic Period Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon Argead dynasty Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV Antigonid dynasty Antigonus I Seleucid Empire Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra ♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt )Province of Egypt Judaea Syria 116–117 CE Province of Mesopotamia underTrajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint. Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia ♀ Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima ,Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt )Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Shahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran ♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht ♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima ,Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Chronology of the Neolithic period Rulers of ancient Central Asia
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