Navarre is in the transition zone between the greenCantabrian Coast andsemi-arid interior areas and thus its landscapes vary widely across the region. Being in a transition zone also produces a highly variable climate, with summers that are a mix of cooler spells and heat waves, and winters that are mild for the latitude. Navarre is considered by Basque nationalists to be one of thehistoric Basque provinces: itsBasque features are conspicuous in the north, but virtually absent on the southern fringes. The best-known event in Navarre is the annualfestival of San Fermín held in Pamplona in July.
The first documented use of a name resemblingNavarra,Nafarroa, orNaparroa is a reference tonavarros, inEginhard's early-9th-century chronicle of the feats of theHoly Roman EmperorCharlemagne, describing his intrusion to the Ebro river.[5] OtherRoyal Frankish Annals featurenabarros. There are two proposed etymologies for the name.[5]
Basquenabar (declinedabsolutesingularnabarra): "brownish", "multicolour" (i. e. in contrast to the green mountainous lands north of the original County of Navarre).
The official name in Basque isNafarroa, but the formNafarroa Garaia (Upper Navarre) is also often seen, sometimes forirredentist reasons, but mostly to distinguish the province from neighboringLower Navarre.
Before and during theRoman Empire, theVascones populated the southern slopes of thePyrenees, including the area which would ultimately become Navarre. In the mountainous north, the Vascones escaped large-scale Roman settlement, except for some coastal areas—for exampleOiasso (in what is nowGipuzkoa)—and the flatter areas to the south,Calagurris (in what is now La Rioja), which were amenable tolarge-scale Roman farming—vineyards, olives, and wheat crops. There is no evidence of battles fought or general hostility between Romans and Basques, as they had the same enemies.[6]
Neither theVisigoths nor theFranks ever completely subjugated the area. The Vascones (to become the Basques) assimilated neighbouring tribes, such as the Suessetani from the area known today as Aragon and the Caristii, Varduli, and Autrigones, likely of Celtic, origin who inhabited the area of today's Basque Country, by the 7th century AD. The Vascones In the year 778, the Basques defeated a Frankish army at theBattle of Roncevaux Pass.
Following theBattle of Roncevaux Pass (824), the Basque chieftainIñigo Arista was electedKing of Pamplona supported by themuwalladBanu Qasi ofTudela, establishing a Basque kingdom that was later called Navarre.[7] That kingdom reached its zenith during the reign ofSancho III, comprising most of the Christian realms to the south of the Pyrenees, and even a short overlordship ofGascony (in the early 11th century).[8]
When Sancho III died in 1035, the kingdom was divided between his sons.[9] It never fully recovered its political power, while its commercial importance increased as traders and pilgrims (theFrancs) poured into the kingdom via theWay of Saint James.[10] In 1200, Navarre lost the keywestern Basque districts toAlphonse VIII of Castile, leaving the kingdom landlocked.[11] Navarre then contributed with a small but symbolic force of 200 knights to the decisiveBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 against theAlmohads.
To the south of the Pyrenees, Navarre was annexed to theCrown of Castile in 1515, but kept a separate ambiguous status, and a shaky balance up to 1610—King Henry IV was ready to march over Spanish Navarre. A Chartered Government was established (theDiputación), and the kingdom managed to keep home rule. Tensions with the Spanish government came to a head as of 1794, when Spanish premierManuel Godoy attempted to suppress Navarrese and Basque self-government altogether, with the end of theFirst Carlist War (1839 – 1841) definitely bringing the kingdom and its home rule (fueros) to an end.[15]
After the 1839Convention of Bergara,a reduced version of home rule (fueros) was passed in 1839. However, the 1841Act for the Modification of Fueros (later called the "Compromise Act",Ley Paccionada) definitely made the kingdom into a province after a compromise was reached by the Spanish government with officials of the Provincial Council of Navarre. The relocation of customs from the Ebro river to the Pyrenees in 1841 prompted the collapse of Navarre's customary cross-Pyrenean trade and the rise of smuggling.
In 1893 – 1894, theGamazada popular uprising took place centred in Pamplona against Madrid's governmental decisions breaching the 1841 chartered provisions. Except for a small faction (the so-calledAlfonsinos), all parties in Navarre agreed on the need for a new political framework based on home rule within theLaurak Bat, the Basque districts in Spain. Among these, theCarlists stood out, who politically dominated the province, and resented an increased string of rulings and laws passed by Madrid, as well as left leaning influences. Unlike Biscay or Gipuzkoa, Navarre did not develop manufacturing during this period, remaining a basically rural economy.
In 1932, aBasque Country'sseparate statute failed to take off over disagreements on the centrality of Catholicism, a scene of political radicalisation ensued dividing the leftist and rightist forces during the2nd Spanish Republic (1931 – 1939). Thousands of landless labourers occupied properties of wealthy landowners in October 1933, leaving the latter eager for revenge.[16] The most reactionary and clerical Carlists came to prominence, ideologues such asVíctor Pradera, and an understanding withGeneral Mola paved the way to the Spanish Nationalist uprising in Pamplona (18 July 1936).
The triumphant military revolt was followed by a terror campaign in the rearguard against blacklisted individuals considered to be progressive ("reds"), mildly republican, or just inconvenient.[17] The purge especially affected southern Navarre along the Ebro banks, and counted on the active complicity of the clergy, who adopted the fascist salute and even involved in murderous tasks.[18][19]The killing took a death toll of at least 2,857, plus a further 305 dying in prisons (ill-treatment, malnutrition).[20]
The dead were buried in mass graves or discarded into chasms abounding on the central hilly areas (Urbasa, etc.). Basque nationalists were also chased to a lesser extent, e.g. Fortunato Aguirre, aBasque nationalist and mayor of Estella (and co-founder ofOsasuna Football Club), was executed in September 1936. Humiliation and silence ensued for the survivors. Pamplona became the rebel launching point against the Republic during theWar in the North.
As a reward for its support in theSpanish Civil War (Navarre sided for the most part with the military uprising),Franco allowed Navarre, as it happened withÁlava, to maintain during his dictatorship a number of prerogatives reminiscent ofthe ancient Navarrese liberties.[21] The bleak post-war years were shaken by shortage, famine, and smuggling, with the economy relying on agriculture (wheat, vineyards, olive, barley), and a negative migration balance. The victors came to cluster around two main factions,Carlists andFalangists,[22] while the totalitarian ultra-Catholic environment provided fertile grounds for another religious group, theOpus Dei, to found theirUniversity of Navarre (1952), ever more influential in Pamplona.
The coming of the society of consumption and incipient economic liberalisation saw also the establishment of factories and workshops during the early 1960s (automobile manufacturing and accessories, etc.), especially around the overgrown capital.[citation needed] It was followed by labour and political unrest.
Officials and figures with good connections to the Navarrese regional government went on to joinAdolfo Suárez'sUCD, later splitting into the partyUPN led byJesús Aizpún Tuero (1979), refusing to join a democratic constitutional process on the grounds that Navarre's charters (orfueros) remained in place. They also refused to join theBasque process to become an autonomous community, where recently legalised Basque nationalist and leftist parties held a majority.
A continuation of the institutional framework inherited from the dictatorship and its accommodation into the Spanish democracy was guaranteed by the Betterment ("Amejoramiento"), a Navarre-only solution considered 'an upgrade' of its former status issued from the (remains of the) charters. In a three-year span, theSpanish Socialists in Navarre veered in their position, quit the Basque process, and joined the arrangement adopted for Navarre (Chartered Community of Navarre, 1982). The reform was not ratified by referendum, as demanded by Basque nationalist and minority leftist forces.
After the end ofFranco's dictatorship, Navarre became one of the 17Autonomous Communities in Spain. The community ceremonies, education, and social services, together with housing, urban development, and environment protection policies are under the responsibility of Navarre's political institutions. As in the rest of the communities, Navarre has aParliament elected every four years, and the majority in this Parliament determines the president of the Community, who is in charge of Navarre's government. Unlike most other autonomous communities of Spain (but like theBasque Autonomous Community), Navarre has almost full responsibility for collecting and administering taxes which must follow the overall guidelines established by the Spanish government but may have some minor differences.
Basque nationalist parties also represent a sizeable part of the vote (around 31% in the2015 elections), and a majority in most of the northern areas. Basque nationalist parties have as a key point in their agendas tomerge Navarre into the Basque Autonomous Community by referendum (as predicted in the Spanish constitution). All Spain-based parties, as well as UPN and PSN, oppose this move.
Politics in Navarre have been marked by fierce rivalry between two blocs representing different national identities that are part of Navarre society: the pro-Basque EH Bildu and the Basque nationalist Geroa Bai parties, on the one side, and the institutional pro-Spanish parties, UPN, PP and PSN on the other. Parties on the pro-Basque spectrum demand further sovereignty in internal affairs of Navarre and closer relationship with the districts of theBasque Autonomous Community. Another 2013–2014 controversy refers to the alleged ideological profiling of public school Basque language teachers, billed as "ETA supporting teachers".[23][24]
Since the establishment of Navarre's present status (theAmejoramiento, the 'Betterment') in 1982, the successive regional governments ruled by UPN and PSN have been shaken by frequent political instability andcorruption scandals, with UPN's Miguel Sanz's term being the most stable and longest, extending from 2001 to 2011. Between 2012 and 2014, a series of corruption scandals broke out involving regional presidentYolanda Barcina and other regional government officials that included influence peddling, embezzlement, misappropriation of funds and mismanagement leading to thebankruptcy of Caja Navarra.[25][26] By November 2012, the PSN—UPN's standing ally in Navarre up to that point—backed down on its support of UPN, but refused to impeach Yolanda Barcina or search new political alliances, leaving a deadlocked government. The regional president, widely questioned in Navarre as of 2012 and relying only on the PP central government's backup, went on to urge theConstitutional Court to challenge several decisions made by theParliament of Navarre.[27]
After the latest scandal and corruption allegations affecting a secretary of her cabinet (Lourdes Goicoechea, regional public finance secretary) in February 2014,[28] the Spanish home office secretaryJorge Fernández Díaz stepped in warning leading members of PSN that "Navarre is strategic for Spain", and asserting that any other political alliance means "supporting ETA". The Justice secretary in MadridAlberto Ruiz Gallardón in turn stated that "the worst political error is not corruption" but getting along withBildu (a Basque pro-independence coalition).[29] In May 2015, the elections for Navarre Parliament left a better result for pro-Basque parties, which managed to establish an alliance,Uxue Barkos from Geroa Bai being elected president of Navarre for the period 2015 – 2019. June 2019 elections, however, turned the tide, when rightist forces reunited in the platformNavarra Suma, made up of UPN, PP andCiudadanos, and garnered 20 MPs, 40% of the seats in the Parliament of Navarre, although both Geroa Bai and EH Bildu increased their vote share.[30][31] Following the election results, PSN'sMaría Chivite was elected president with the support provided by progressive forces, handing over Pamplona's council to Navarra Suma and explicitly excluding EH Bildu from any talks or alliances, but relying on its abstention for her inauguration.[32][33]
In December 2017, the Navarrese parliament passed a law splitting teachers aspiring to work in the state-run education network into two different professional categories, one for those qualified inBasque andSpanish, and another for Spanish monolinguals, so thwarting with the vote ofIzquierda-Ezkerra (integrated in the regional government) the new progressive government's plan to have just one; the latter echoes a long-running demand of education unions.[34] In July 2018, theConstitutional Court of Spain suspended the Far Right's and Civil Servants' Victims Act passed by theParliament of Navarre in 2015.[35] Three months later, the chief executive officer of theNational Police in Navarre stepped down for the disclosure of a fakeTwitter account he owned that praisedAntonio Tejero, as well as Vox leaderSantiago Abascal as a newJose Antonio, also insulting a number of Catalan and Basque nationalist and leftist figures.[36] In October 2019, the High Court of Navarre ruled against the public use of bilingual signalling and institutional announcements in Mixed-Speaking and Non-Basque Speaking areas, also proscribing the consideration of Basque as a merit in job positions, unless strictly needed; the judgement sparked an uproar among some parties in the coalition government of Navarre, as well as EH Bildu, but was saluted by the PSN and Navarra Suma.[37][38]
Navarre consists of 272municipalities and has a total population of 601,874 (2006), of whom approximately one-third live in the capital,Pamplona (195,769 pop.), and one-half in the capital's metropolitan area (315,988 pop.). There are no other large municipalities in the region. The next largest areTudela (32,802),Barañain (22,401),Burlada/Burlata (18,388),Estella-Lizarra (13,892),Zizur Mayor (13,197),Tafalla (11,040),Villava/Atarrabia (10,295), andAnsoáin/Antsoain (9,952).
Despite its relatively small size, Navarre features stark contrasts in geography, from thePyrenees mountain range that dominates the territory to the plains of the Ebro river valley in the south. The highest point in Navarre isMesa de los Tres Reyes, with an elevation of 2,428 metres (7,966 feet).
In the north, climate is affected by the Atlantic Ocean leading an Oceanic west coast climate (Köppen: Cfb). Since the northernmost part of Navarre is less than 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from theBay of Biscay, the northern fringes resembleSan Sebastián. At central Navarre the summer precipitations start to lower, leading to a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa and Csb) At the southernmost part of Navarre the climate is cool semi-arid (Köppen: Bsk). This is also at a comparatively low elevation compared to most of the north, further pontentiating the hot summers in comparison to Pamplona and even more so the northern hilly and mountainous region.
The sole official weather station of Navarre is located in Pamplona in its north-western corner and has summer highs of 28 °C (82 °F) and lows of 14 °C (57 °F), while winter highs are 9 °C (48 °F) and lows 1 °C (34 °F) with moderate precipitation year-round.
As of 2024, Navarra is the 15th most populous autonomous community in Spain with a population of 678,333, which makes a population density of 65.3 inhabitants per km2.[2]
The data of the population pyramid of 2010 can be summarized as follows:
The population under 20 years of age is 19.84% of the total.
The Iberian Peninsula in 1030. The first evidence of writtenRomance in central Spain and of writtenBasque is in theGlosas Emilianenses, fromLa Rioja, a territory that was part of Navarre for some time. The map showsthe Kingdom of Pamplona through the years 1029-1035.
Presently, Spanish is predominantly spoken in most of the autonomous community, except for north-eastern areas, where Basque continues to be the prevailing language. According to official statistics, Spanish is the mother tongue of 81.9% of the population, Basque is 5.7% of the population's mother tongue, and 3.8% of the population has both languages as their mother tongue while 6.1% of the population have another language as theirmother tongue.[43]
The number of people that can speak Basque has increased in Navarre lately,[44] after a steady historic retreat. In 2011, 13.6% of the population in Navarre considered themselves to be speakers of Basque and another 14.5% considered themselves semi-speakers of Basque.[45] Historically, Basque is thelingua navarrorum, as it appears in documents of the Middle Ages, such as a document by the kingSancho the Wise.[46] The kingdom cemented its roots in the predominantly Basque-speaking domain of Pamplona and surrounding areas.[47] In the midst of contemporary scholarly debates on the existence of Navarre and its laws prior to the king's authority, the Navarrese author Garcia de Gongora states as follows in 1626:
Two languages are spoken across the kingdom, Basque andRomance, but most properly the Cantabric [language] Basque, the original and most ancient, brought along byits creator, the patriarch Tubal, devoid of mingling with others; it has always been preserved there, except in the Ribera and the bordering areas of Castile and Aragon, where Romance is spoken.
— García de Gongora (pseudonym of Juan Sada Amezqueta)[48]
José Moret, chronicler of the kingdom, called Navarre and its bordering provinces "the lands of Basque", claiming also that Tubal founded the Kingdom of Navarre.[48] However, Basque underwent a gradual erosion, accelerated following the conquest of the kingdom in the early 16th century due to the homogenizing push of the new Castilian authorities and the neglect of its own elites, among other reasons.[49] By 1778, 121,000 inhabitants out of 227,000 were Basque speakers, 53% of its population, still the largest amount of Basque speakers acrossall Basque territories. However, the number of speakers dropped sharply in the 19th century. In 1936, Basque speakers accounted for a 17% of the total Navarrese population.[50]
Other languages have been spoken, but have disappeared, such asNavarro-Aragonese, a Romance language that was spoken in the Middle Ages around the central part of theEbro basin. Starting in the late 11th century, the influx of pilgrims and colonizers from Toulouse and surrounding areas (Francs) who settled in separate boroughs along the Way of Saint James renderedOccitan the status language of the kingdom up to early 14th century.Navarro-Aragonese became the written language in court and royal administration by 1329, when it reached official status.[51] However, from the 15th century onwards the language grew closer to Castilian (Spanish) and eventually merged with it.[52] Other languages which at some point held a status or were spoken in certain communities and periods areErromintxela,French,Hebrew, andArabic.
Linguistic division of the territory and legal consequences
Distribution by municipality of the Basque-speaking zone, mixed-speaking zone and the non-Basque speaking zone through the modification of 2017.
According to the 1978 Spanish constitution and theAmejoramiento del Fuero, a Navarrese law establishing the basic institutional make-up of the chartered community of Navarre, Spanish is the official language of Navarre, while theBasque language is also the official language in Basque-Speaking areas. Unlike any other statutes in the Spanish autonomous communities owning a regional language, the Amejoramiento omits citing Basque as a specific language of its people or its consideration as part of the Navarrese heritage.[53]
The Statutory Law of Basque of 1986 defined the above areas, creating theBasque-speaking zone, an area in northern Navarre in which Basque is the co-official language along with Spanish. This law recognizes Spanish and Basque as Navarre'slenguas propias (i.e. 'native languages'), according to the Foral Law 18/1986 of Basque.[54] This law divides Navarre into three linguistically distinct areas, aBasque-speaking zone, where Basque is the dominant language, aMixed-speaking zone, where Basque and Spanish are both dominant, and aNon-Basque speaking zone, where Spanish is the dominant language. In the latter, the public entities of Navarre are required to use only Spanish, but in the mixed area the use of Basque is also confined to certain position. The area of the municipalities belonging to the Basque-speaking and Mixed Basque and Spanish-speaking zones are the following:[54]
As a consequence of the constitution of new municipalities, other municipalities would be added:Berrioplano,Berriozar,Orcoyen andZizur Mayor. Moreover, in 2010 a legal modification granted four municipalities ofCuenca de Pamplona the power of incorporating into theMixed-speaking zone if the absolute majority decided to be incorporated into theMixed-speaking zone.Aranguren,Belascoáin andGalar decided to be incorporated into theMixed-speaking zone whileNoáin decided to remain in theBasque-speaking zone.
Non-Basque-speaking zone: This zone is composed of the remaining municipalities that are located predominantly towards the Southeast of the foral community where the Basque language is not commonly spoken by the population. However, more people have been speaking Basque in these communities and in present day, there are municipalities in which 10% of their inhabitants are bilingual or semi-bilingual in Basque and Spanish such as inTafalla,Sangüesa andLumbier. In comparison, in Tafalla or Sanguesa's population those that speak or understand Basque well are 5% of the population or 10% enLumbier. In other localities withikastolas such as inFontellas,Lodosa andViana the bilingual population is around 2% and 8%, while those that speak or understand Basque well are 1% inFontellas, 2% inLodosa and 5% inViana.[56] Since 2006-2007 the schools that teach Basque in theNon-Basque speaking zone are assisted by the Department of Education of the government of Navarre.[57]
Basque in Navarre has various dialects (there are nine according to the classification of the General Basque Dictionary or theRoyal Academy of the Basque Language). According to the most recent classification ofKoldo Zuazo, the most widespread dialect isUpper Navarrese, spoken in the northern part of Navarre. In localities such as Basaburua Mayor, Imoz and other localities bordering Gipuzkoa, the dialect of Central Basque is spoken and in the central part of the Pyrenees in Navarre a variety ofNavarro-Lapurdian is spoken.
On the east of the Pyrenees in Navarre, theRoncalese andSalazarese dialects of Basque used to be spoken in the valleys ofRoncal andSalazar, but they disappeared near the end of the twentieth century; the last person who spoke the Roncalese dialect died in 1991 and in Salazar the language also disappeared because the last person who spoke it fluently died during the first years of the twenty-first century. Apart from dialects, sub-dialects from Basque also exist and there are also differences in vocabulary in local linguistic communities.
Linguistic traits of the Spanish spoken in Navarre
There are a number of features of Spanish as spoken in Navarre that are either exclusive to the area or shared only with neighbouring areas (mainlyAragón andLa Rioja), such as the predominance of thediminutive with-ico or the use of the conditional verb tense in place of the preterite of the subjunctive (for example, usingpodría instead ofpudiera). There are also differences in the vocabulary of Spanish speakers from Navarre,[58] including the presence of words of Basque origin, which is in some cases due to aBasque substrate, or long-standing contact and commercial exchanges with areas of Navarre in which Basque is spoken.[50]
During theReconquista, Navarre gained little ground at the expense of the Muslims, since its southern boundary had already been established by the time of theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. Starting in the 11th century, theWay of Saint James grew in importance. It brought pilgrims, traders and Christian soldiers from the north.Gascons and Occitans from beyond thePyrenees (calledFranks) received self-government and other privileges to foster settlement in Navarrese towns, and they brought their crafts, culture andRomance languages.
Jews and Muslims were persecuted both north and south of Navarre, expelled for the most part during the late 15th century to the early 16th century. The kingdom struggled to maintain its separate identity in 14th and 15th centuries, and afterKing Ferdinand V forcibly conquered Navarre after the death of his wifeQueen Isabella, he extended the Castilian expulsion and forcible integration orders applicable toconversos andmudejars of 1492 to the former kingdom. Therefore,Tudela in particular could no longer serve as a refuge after the Inquisitors were allowed.
Pamplona Airport is the only airport in the region which provides flights to Madrid, Gran Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Ibiza which are operated byIberia andBinter Canarias.
Navarre is one of the wealthiest regions in Spain per capita, with a diversified economy primarily focused on theenergy sector,healthcare services andmanufacturing. Thegross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 20.3 billion euros as of 2018, accounting for 1.7% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 33,700 euros or 112% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 109% of the EU average.[59]
The unemployment rate stood at 10.2% in 2017 and was the lowest in the country.[60]
Navarre leads Europe in its use ofrenewable energy technology and planned to reach 100% renewable electricity generation by 2010. By 2004, 61% of the region's electricity was generated by renewable sources consisting of 43.6% from 28wind farms, 12% from over 100 small-scalewater turbines, and 5.3% from 2biomass and 2biogas plants. In addition, the region had what was then Spain's largestphotovoltaic power plant at Montes de Cierzo deTudela (1.2 MWp capacity) plus several hundred smaller photovoltaic installations.
Developments since 2004 have included further photovoltaic plants atLarrión (0.25 MWp)[61] and another atCastejón (2.44 MWp), also once the largest in Spain.[62]
The official denomination of Navarran municipalities and villages are regulated according to theForal Basque Law.[54][63] It distinguishes three different types of formulas:
Unique denominations: the use of Basque in legal documents is the same when compared with Spanish independently. Examples: Lantz or Beintza-Labaien.
Compounded denominations: They have a unique denomination formula formed from the Spanish and Basque toponyms in Spanish or Basque and are united by the symbol "-" or "/". Its use (the compounded denomination) is the same in Spanish as in Basque. Examples: Doneztebe/Santesteban, Orreaga/Roncesvalles, Estella-Lizarra.
Double denominations: The toponym, in Basque or Spanish is dependent on the language and how it is used in the text. Examples: Pamplona <> Iruña, Villava <> Atarrabia, Aibar <> Oibar.
Percentage of people that speak Basque well (2001).
^Charla con Lucio Urtubia [Talks with Lucio Urtubia] (in Spanish). CGT/LKN Bizkaia. 2014-04-15. Event occurs at 07’02.Archived from the original on 2021-11-02. Retrieved2015-05-01.(First-hand witnessLucio Urtubia's testimony in Spanish) For the first time ever that is being talked about now, I only bore witness to crimes and abuses in my land carried out by that Church that if it really wanted, all could have been prevented. In the Ribera of Navarre, there are about 4,000 dead by fire-squad, people who had done no harm, no evil to anyone, they were just workers, farmers, the hunger-stricken, so that is why, because they were Republicans, or just affiliated to theCNT orUGT that they were executed by firearm. That was with the complicity of the Catholic Church, that is why I don't believe in that Church, that Church was horrific. That Church had the likes of don Pablo or don Vitoriano, who came down every morning, there were little kids who had just come from shooting in executions, with the former asking to them, "How many, how many today?", the kids going, "Three or four", in turn responding, "Small number, small number". I lived through all that.
^Irribaren, Jose María.Vocabulario navarro, Pamplona: Institución Príncipe de Viana, 1984 y Carmen Saralegui, Cristina Tabernero: Navarrismos en el diccionario de la Real Academia Española, Pamplona: Gobierno de Navarra, Departamento de Educación y Cultura, 2001.
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