Trirashmi Caves Buddha and Jain leni Caves
Nasik Caves, Cave No. 17, built circa 120 CE.
Nasik Caves Show map of India Nasik Caves Show map of Maharashtra
Location	Nashik,Maharashtra,India
Coordinates	19°56′28″N73°44′55″E / 19.9412°N 73.7486°E /19.9412; 73.7486

TheTrirashmi Caves,^[1] orNashik Caves orPandavleni is a holy Buddhist and Jain site located about 8 km south of the centre ofNashik (or Nasik),Maharashtra, India. Most of the caves areviharas except for Cave 18 which is achaitya of the 1st centuryBCE.^[2] The style of some of the elaborate pillars or columns, for example in caves 3 and 10, is an important example of the development of the form.^[3] Cave 11 is aJain cave dedicated to Lord Vrishabhanath (Rishabhanatha), the firstTirthankara ofJainism. Some scholars suggest that the namePandavleni is derived from thePandavas, characters in theMahabharata epic, as some caves contain inscriptions related to early Brahmin orHindu beliefs. Other caves in thisMaharashtra area include theKarla Caves,Bhaja Caves,Patan Caves andBedse Caves.

These are a group of twenty-four Early Buddhist caves whose excavation was financed by kings, merchants, devotees and foreigners who supportedJainism andBuddhism. Cave No. 3 is a largevihara or monastery with some interesting sculptures. Cave No. 10 is also avihara, almost identical in design to Cave No. 3, but finer in detail and thought to be nearly as old as theKarla Caves nearLonavala. Cave No. 18 is achaitya worship hall believed to be similar in date to the Karla Caves, with a finely sculptured and elaborate facade. This cave houses a stone-cutstupa, statues of the Buddha,Jain TirthankaraṚṣabhadeva, and icons of theyakṣasMaṇibhadra andAmbikā. The chaitya hall served as a chamber used for communal ceremonies, chanting, walking and seated meditation.There are water tanks that have been skilfully carved out of the solid rock.^[4]

The Nasik caves are some of the oldest in Maharashtra. Some are large and contain numerous rock-cut chambers that served as aviharas or monasteries for Jain and Buddhist monks. One of the older viharas contains a particularly elaborate facade, fine in sculptural detail and thought to be nearly as old as the Karla Cave nearLonavala

Some of the caves have images of the Buddha,bodhisattvas, sculptures representing the kings, farmers, merchants and other rich iconography.^[5][6]

The site has an excellent ancient water management system with severalwater tanks skillfully chiseled out of solid rock.^[7]

The caves can be traced back to the 1st century BCE by inscriptions that record donations made by kings and laity.^[2] Out of the twenty-four caves, two caves are a major attraction - cave No. 18, a chaitya (prayer hall) with astupa, and cave No. 10, structurally complete with famous inscriptions. Both of the caves have carved images of the Buddha and face eastwards.

The various inscriptions confirm that Nasik was ruled by three dynasties – theWestern Kshatrapas, theSatavahanas and theAbhiras. It seems there was always a conflict between Satavahanas and the Kshatrapas over supremacy. However, all the kings supported Buddhism. The inscriptions also confirm that local merchants donated huge sums for cave excavation and development.

The group of 24 caves were cut in a long line on the north face of a hill called Trirasmi. The importance of this group lies not only in the number of inscriptions of great historical significance belonging to the reigns of Satavahana and Kshaharata rulers, but also in representing a brilliant phase in the rock-cut architecture of the second century CE. There are 24 excavations though many seem small and less historically important. Starting at the east end, the caves are numbered westward. They are almost entirely of an early date, and while many were excavated to support the schools ofEarly Buddhism, several show the artistic influence and styles of later schools calledMahayana. Mostly, the interior of the caves are starkly plain, in contrast to the heavily ornamented exterior.

Inscriptions in caves 3, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19 and 20 are legible. Other inscriptions note the namesGautamiputra Satkarni andVashishthiputra Pulumavi of theSatavahanas,Ushavadata and his wife Dakshamitra, of theWestern Satraps, and theYavana (Indo-Greek) Dhammadeva.

Since the caves were inhabited by theEarly Buddhism as well as Mahayana sects, one can see a nice confluence of structure and sculpture.

Cave No.3 atNasik is one of the most important caves, and the largest, of thePandavleni caves complex. It was built and dedicated to thesangha in the 2nd century CE by Queen Gotami Balasiri, mother of deceasedSatavahana kingGautamiputra Satakarni, and contains many important inscriptions.

The cave is avihara meant to provide shelter to Buddhist monks. It is, with cave No.10, the largest vihara cave in the Pandavleni Caves complex. The hall is 41 feet wide and 46 deep, with a bench round three sides. The cave has six pillars on the front porch, roughly similar to those of the early cave No. 10 built by the viceroy ofNahapana circa 120 CE. Inside, 18 monk cells are laid out according to a square plan, seven on the right side, six in the back, and five in the left.^[8]

Entrance

The central door into this vihara is sculptured in a style reminiscent of theSanchi gateways; the side pilasters are divided into six compartments, each filled mostly with two men and a woman, in different stages of some story which seems to end in the woman being carried off by one of the men.^[8]
Over the door are the three symbols, theBodhi tree, thedagoba, and thechakra wheel with worshipers; at each side is advarapala or doorkeeper, holding up a bunch of flowers. If the carving on this door be compared with any of those atAjanta, it may be found more crude and less bold, but the style of headdress agrees with that on the screen walls atKarle,Kanheri, and in the paintings in Cave X at Ajanta, which probably belong to about the same age.^[8]

Pillars

The veranda has six octagonal columns without bases between highly sculptured pilasters. The capitals of these pillars are distinguished from those in theNahapana Cave No. 10 by the shorter and less elegant form of the bell-shaped portion of them, and by the corners of the frame that encloses the torus having small figures attached; both alike have a series of five thin members, overlapping one another and supporting four animals on each capital, bullocks, elephants, horses,sphinxes, etc..., between the front and back pairs of which runs thearchitrave, supporting a projectingfrieze, with all the details of a wooden framing copied in it. The upper part of the frieze in this case is richly carved with a string course of animals under a richly carved rail, resembling in its design and elaborateness the rails atAmravati, with which this vihara must be nearly, if not quite contemporary. The pillars stand on a bench in the veranda, and in front of them is a carved screen, supported by three dwarfs on each side the steps to the entrance.^[8]
The details of this cave and No. 10 are so alike that the one must be regarded as a copy of the other, but the capitals in No. 10 are so like those of theKarla Caves'chaitya, while those in the veranda of this cave are so much poorer in proportion, that one is tempted to suppose this belongs to a later period, when art had begun to decay.^[8]

Comparison with other sites

The architecture of the Nahapana cave (Cave No.10) is very similar to that of theKarla Caves GreatChaitya. Conversely, the architecture of cave No. 3 is very similar to that of theKanheriChaitya. This suggests that the two viharas cannot be very far apart in date from the two chaitya halls.^[8]

One long inscription (No. 2) in the 19th year ofSatavahana kingSri Pulumavi (2nd century CE), explains that Queen Gotami Balasiri, mother of glorious kingGotamiputra, caused this cave to be built and gave it to thesangha.^[10] There is also another long inscription (No.3) by Sri Pulumavi himself, also in the 22nd year of his reign.^[10] There are also inscriptions (No. 4 and No. 5) at the entrance of the cave byGautamiputra Satakarni (2nd century) in the 18th year of his reign, who claims a great victory.^[11]

As mentioned above, one of the most important Nasik Caves inscription was made by Gautamiputra's mother the great queen Gotami Balasiri, during the reign of her grandsonVasishthiputra Pulumavi, in order to record the gift of Cave No.3. The full inscription consists in a longeulogy of Gautamiputra Satakarni, mentioning his valour, his military victories, and then her gift of a cave in the Nasik Caves complex.

The most important passages on this inscription related to the military victories of Gautamiputra Satakarni, in particular:

• the claim that Gautamiputra Satakarni "destroyed theSakas,Yavanas andPalhavas", alluding respectively to theWestern Satraps, theIndo-Greeks and theIndo-Parthians
• the claim that Gautamitra Satakarni "rooted out theKhakharata race" and "restored the glory of the Satavahana family". The Khakharata refers to the Kshaharata dynasty, the family branch ofNahapana, the importantWestern Satraps ruler.

The full inscription, located on the back wall of the veranda above the entrance, reads:

The above inscription shows an odd but fascinating blend of Vedic-Bramanic beliefs, religious and cultural, in mentioning caste (the "twice born" Brahmins and the "varnas," or Four Castes) and charachters from the Mahabharata (Arjuna, Bhima) and Puranas (Nahusha), while also espousing beliefs in Buddhism ("Renunciation to the enjoyments of every kind," "..this meritorious donation") and openly supporting thesangha. Despite the eventual antagonism between Buddhists and Brahmins over royal patronage, the Satavahanas clearly supported both religious groups, perhaps trying to curry favor not only with the humans but also the divinities.

The next inscription is located right under the inscription of the Queen, only separated by aswastika and another symbol. The inscription (inscription No.3) was made bySri Pulumavi himself, in the 22nd year of his reign, and records the gift of a village for the welfare of the monks dwelling in the cave built by his grandmother.^[10]

The next inscription of the cave is very important in that it seems to record the appropriation by kingGautamiputra Satakarni of a land previously owned byNahapana's viceroyUsubhadata, builder of Cave No.10, thereby confirming the capture of territory by the Satavahanas over the Western Satraps.^[15][16] Since his mother made the final dedication of the cave during the reign of his son (inscription No.2 above), Gautamiputra Satakarni may have started the cave, but not finished it.^[17] The inscription is on the east wall of the veranda in Cave No. 3, under the ceiling.

A final inscription, written as a continuation of the previous one, and only separated by aswastika, describes a correction to the previous inscription, as the donated lands and villages turned to be inappropriate. The inscription reads:

Cave No. 10 is the second largest Vihara, and contains six inscriptions of the family ofNahapana. The six pillars (two of them attached) have more elegant bell-shaped capitals than those in Cave No. 3, and their bases are in the style of those in theKarla CavesChaitya, and in that next to the Granesa Lena atJunnar; the frieze also, like those that remain on the other small caves between Nos.4 and 9, is carved with the simple rail pattern. At each end of the verandah is a cell, donated by "Dakhamitra, the daughter of King Kshaharata Kshatrapa Nahapana, and wife of Ushavadata, son of Dinika."^[8]

Inside hall

The inside hall is about 43 feet wide by 45 feet deep, and is entered by three plain doors, and lighted by two windows. It has five benched cells on each side and six in the back; it wants, however, the bench round the inner sides that can be found in Cave No.3; but, as shown by the capital and ornaments still left, it has had a precisely similardagoba in low relief on the back wall, which has been long afterwards hewn into a figure ofBhairava. Outside the veranda, too, on the left-hand side, have been two reliefs of this same god, evidently the later insertions of some Hindu devotee.^[8]

Comparisons

Since Nahapana was a contemporary ofGautamiputra Satakarni, by whom he was finally vanquished, this cave predates by one generation Cave No. 3, completed in the 18th year of the reign of Gautamiputra's sonSri Pulumavi. Cave No.10 is probably contemporary with Cave No. 17, built by anIndo-Greek "Yavana".

Nahapana is also known for his association with the Great Chaitya inKarla Caves, the largestChaitya building of Southern Asia.^[20][21][22] Cave No. 10 and the Karla Caves Chaitya are extremely similar in style, and thought to be essentially contemporary.^[8]

TheNasik inscription of Ushavadata is an inscription made in cave no.10 byUshavadata, a son-in-law of theWestern Satraps rulerNahapana, in the years circa 120 CE. The main inscription on the doorfront (inscription No.10) is the earliest known instance of the usage ofSanskrit, although a rather hybrid form, in western India.^[23] It also documents the Indian tradition ofdana (charity) to Buddhist monks and of building infrastructure to serve pilgrims and the general public by the 2nd-century CE.^[23]

The inscriptions reveal that in 105-106 CE,Western Satraps defeated the Satavahanas after which KshatrapaNahapana's son-in-law and Dinika's son-Ushavadata donated 3000 gold coins for this cave as well as for the food and clothing of the monks. Usabhdatta's wife (Nahapana's daughter), Dakshmitra also donated one cave for the Buddhist monks. Cave 10 - 'Nahapana Vihara' is spacious with 16 rooms.

Over the doorway of the left cell appears the following inscription:

" Success ! This cell, the gift of Dakhamitra, wife of Ushavadata, son of Dinika, and daughter of king Nahapana, the Khshaharata Kshatrapa."

Two inscriptions in Cave 10 mentions the building and the gift of the whole cave to theSamgha byUshavadata, the son-in-law and viceroy of Nahapana:

"Success !Ushavadata, son of Dinika, son-in- law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, (...) inspired by (true) religion, in the Trirasmi hills atGovardhana, has caused this cave to be made and these cisterns."

"Success ! In the year 42, in the month Vesakha,Ushavadata, son of Dinika, son-in- law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, has bestowed this cave on theSamgha generally...."

Altogether, the caves contain six inscriptions of the family ofNahapana, but the Ushavadata inscription is particularly important in that it is the earliest known instance of the usage ofSanskrit, although a rather hybrid form, in western India.^[23] Most of the other inscriptions made by the Western Satraps were inPrakrit, using theBrahmi script.^[23]

In what has been described as "the great linguisticalparadox of India",Sanskrit inscriptions first appeared much later thanPrakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered a descendant of the Sanskrit language.^[23] This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influentialEdicts of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE).^[23] Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of theIndo-Scythian rulers, either theNorthern Satraps aroundMathura for the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India.^[23] It is thought that theseIndo-Scythian rulers became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture: according to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".^[23]

The inscription was followed by theJunagadh rock inscription, inscribed byRudradaman I circa 150 CE, is "the first long inscription recorded entirely in more or less standard Sanskrit".^[23] Sanskrit inscriptions by the Western Satraps are not found for about two hundred years after the Rudradaman reign, but it is important because its style is the prototype of theeulogy-style Sanskrit inscriptions found in theGupta Empire era.^[23] These inscriptions are all in the Brahmi script.^[23]

The first three lines of the inscription consist of aeulogy of Ushavadata, and are written in fairly standard Sanskrit, except for a few hybrid features, including severalsandhihiatuses and hybrid morphology (e.g.bhojāpayitrā).^[23] The rest of the inscription records the actual donations, and is more hybrid.^[23] Ushavadatta is otherwise known for making inscriptions inPrakrit in theKarla Caves, which, especially for the eulogy portion, are largely similar in content.^[23]

According toRichard Salomon, Ushavadatta may have followed the example set by theNorthern Satraps of Mathura, in using Sanskrit in some of his inscriptions.^[23] It would seem the usage of literary Sanskrit may have been a fashionable way of adding some formality to inscriptions which had traditionally been made in Prakrit.^[23]

Cave No.11 is close to Cave No.10, but at a somewhat higher level. In the left end of the veranda is the fragment of a seat; the room inside is 11 feet 7 inches by 7 feet 10 inches, having a cell, 6 feet 8 inches square, at the left end, and another, not quite so large, at the back, with a bench at the side and back. In the front room is carved, on the back wall, in low relief, a sitting figure and attendants on a lion throne, and on the right-end wall a fat figure ofAmba on a tiger with attendants, and anIndra on an elephant: all are small, clumsily carved, and evidently of lateJaina workmanship.^[8]

Cave No.11 has one inscription mentioning it is the gift of the son of a writer: " the benefaction of Ramanaka, the son of Sivamitra, the writer."^[29]

Cave No.12 has one inscription mentioning it is the gift of a merchant named Ramanaka.^[29] Cave No.13 has no inscriptions.^[29]

Cave No.17 was built by a devotee of Greek descent, who presents his father as being aYavana from the northern city ofDemetriapolis.^[30][31] The cave is dated to around 120 CE.

Inside hall

Cave 17 is the third large Vihara, though smaller than Nos.3, 10, 20, and has been executed close to the upper portion of theChaitya cave. The hall measures 22 feet 10 inches wide by 32 feet 2 inches deep, and has a back aisle screened off by two columns, of which the elephants and their riders and the thin square members of the capitals only are finished. The steps of the shrine door have also been left as a rough block, on which aHindu has carved theshalunkha, or receptacle for alinga. The shrine has never been finished. On the wall of the back aisle is a standing figure of Buddha, 3.5 feet high; in the left side of the hall, 2 feet 3 inches from the floor, is a recess, 18.5 feet long and 4 feet 3 inches high by 2 feet deep, intended for a seat or perhaps for a row of metallic images; a cell has been attempted at each end of this, but one of them has entered the aisle of the Chaitya-cave just below, and the work has then been stopped. On the right side are four cells without benches.^[32]

Veranda

The veranda is somewhat peculiar, and it would seem that, at first, a much smaller cave was projected, or else by some mistake it was begun too far to the left. It is ascended by half a-dozen steps in front between the two central octagonal pillars with very short shafts, and large bases and capitals, the latter surmounted by elephants and their riders, and the frieze above carved with the plain "rail pattern". They stand on a paneled base; but the landing between the central pair is opposite the left window in the back wall of the veranda, to the right of which is the principal door, but to the left of the window is also a narrower one. The veranda has then been prolonged to the west, and another door broken out to the outside beyond the right attached pillar; at this end of the veranda also is an unfinished cell.^[32]

Comparisons

The cave is later than the Chaitya next it, and the veranda a little later in style than the Nahapana Cave No.10. The interior with an image of the Buddha, was probably executed at a later date, around the 6th century CE.^[32] Fergusson states later in his book that, from an architectural standpoint, Cave No.17 is contemporary with the Great Chatya at theKarla Caves, but is actually a bit earlier in style than Cave No.10 of Nahapana at Nasik, but at no great interval of time.^[33]

Cave No.17 has one inscription, mentioning the gift of the cave by Indragnidatta the son of theYavana (i.e.Greek orIndo-Greek) Dharmadeva. It is located on the back wall of the veranda, over the main entrance, and is inscribed in large letters:

"Success! (The gift) of Indragnidatta, son of Dhammadeva, theYavana, a northerner from Dattamittri. By him, inspired by true religion, this cave has been caused to be excavated in mount Tiranhu, and inside the cave aChaitya and cisterns. This cave made for the sake of his father and mother has been, in order to honor allBuddhas bestowed on the universalSamgha by monks together with his son Dhammarakhita."

The city of "Dattamittri" may be the city ofDemetrias inArachosia, mentioned byIsidore of Charax.^[29] Thisvihara is probably contemporary to the reign ofWestern SatrapNahapana, circa 120 CE.
The word "Yoṇaka", which was the current Greek Hellenistic form, is used in the inscription, instead of "Yavana", which was the Indian word to designate theIndo-Greeks.^[35]
The Yavanas are also known for their donations with inscriptions at the GreatChaitya at theKarla Caves, and at theManmodi Caves inJunnar.

Cave No.18 is achaitya design, comparable to theKarla Caves Chaitya, although earlier and much smaller and simpler in design. It is the only Chaitya cave of the group, belongs to a much earlier date; and though none of the three inscriptions on it supplies certain information on this point, yet the name of Maha Hakusiri, found in one of them, tends to push it back to some period about or before theChristian era. The carving, however, over the door and the pilasters with animal capitals on the façade on each side the great arch, and the insertion of the hooded snake, will, on comparison with the façades atBedsa andKarla, tend to suggest an early date for this cave.^[32]

Chronology

Chaitya No. 18 participates to a chronology of several other Chaitya caves which were built inWestern India under royal sponsorship.^[36] It is thought that the chronology of these early Chaitya Caves is as follows: first Cave 9 atKondivite Caves, then Cave 12 at theBhaja Caves and Cave 10 ofAjanta Caves, around the 1st century BCE.^[37] Then, in chronological order: Cave 3 atPitalkhora, Cave 1 atKondana Caves, Cave 9 atAjanta Caves, which, with its more ornate designs, may have been built about a century later,^[36] Only then appears Cave 18 at Nasik Caves, to be followed by Cave 7 atBedse Caves, and finally by the "final perfection" of the Great Chaitya atKarla Caves (circa 120 CE).^[37]

Doorway

The doorway is evidently of an early date, and the ornament up the left side is almost identical with that found on the pillars of the northern gateway atSanchi, with which it consequently is in all probability coeval (1st century CE). The carving over the doorway, which represents the wooden framework which filled all openings, of a similar class, at that age, is of a much more ornamental character than usual, or than the others shown on this facade. Animals are introduced as in theLomas Rishi. So also are thetrisulas and shield emblems, in a very ornamental form, but almost identical with those existing in theManmodi cave atJunnar, which is probably of about the same age as this Chaitya.^[32]

Hall

The interior measures 38 feet 10 inches by 21 feet 7 inches, and the nave, from the door up to thedagoba, 25 feet 4 inches by 10 feet, and 23 feet 3 inches high. The cylinder of the dagoba is 5.5 feet in diameter and 6 feet 3 inches high, surmounted by a small dome and very heavy capital. The gallery under the great arch of the window is supported by two pillars, which in all cases in the Chaitya caves are in such a form as strongly to suggest that a wooden frame was fastened between them, probably to hold a screen, which would effectually shut in the nave from observation from outside. Five octagonal pillars, with high bases of theKarle pattern but without capitals, on each side the nave, and five without bases round the dagoba, divide off the side aisles.^[32]

The woodwork that once occupied the front arch, and the roof of the nave has long ago disappeared. Whether there ever were pillars in advance of the present facade as atBedsa, or a screen as at Karle, cannot be determined with certainty, unless by excavating largely among the debris in front. There was probably something of the kind, but the Viharas, inserted so close to it on either side, must have hastened the ruin of the side walls of it.^[32]

The cave has several inscriptions. Inscription No.19 appears on the 5th and 6th pillars on the right aisle of the Chaitya, and explains that the cave received some perfecting by the wife of a government official, but the government in question remains unnamed:

"By Bhatapalika, the grand-daughter of Mahahakusiri and daughter of the royal officer Arahalaya from Chalisilana, wife of the royal officer Agiyatanaka, of the treasure office, mother of Kapananaka, thisChaityagriha has been caused to be perfected on this mount Tiranhu."

This inscription is slightly less ancient than the inscription on the doorway, suggesting that it was inscribed some time in the later phases of the construction of the cave.^[38]

Inscription No.20 explains that the decoration above the doorway was a donation of the people of nearbyNashik ("The gift of the village of Dhambhika, of the Nasik people"). Inscription No.21 records the donation of the rail pattern.^[38]

Cave 19 is at a rather lower level even than the Chaitya cave, and some distance in advance of it, but the front and interior have been so filled up with earth as to conceal it from general view. It is a smallVihara, 14 feet 3 inches square, with six cells, two on each side; their doors are surmounted by the Chaitya-arch ornament connected by a frieze of "rail pattern" in some places wavy. In the front wall are two lattice windows, and in the veranda two slender square pillars, the middle portion of the shaft being chamfered to an octagonal shape.^[42]

The cave is exceedingly plain style, and the remarkable rectangularity of all its parts, agree perfectly with what might be expected in a Vihara of the first or second century BCE. Its close family likeness to Cave No.12 atAjanta and others atBhaja andKondane, all of the earliest age, suggest about the same date.^[42]

The cave has one inscription of kingKrishna of theSatavahanas, which is the oldest known Satavahana inscription, dated to 100-70 BCE:^[43][39]

𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑀓𑀼𑀮𑁂 𑀓𑀦𑁆𑀳𑁂 𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀺𑀦𑀺 𑀦𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀦 𑀲𑀫𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀫𑀸𑀢𑁂𑀡 𑀮𑁂𑀡 𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀺𑀢
Sādavāhanakule Kanhe rājini Nāsikakena Samaṇena mahāmāteṇa leṇa kārita
"Under King Kanha of theSatavahana family, this cave has been caused to be made by the officer in charge of theSramanas at Nasik."

Cave No.20 is another large Vihara, its hall varying in width from 37.5 feet at the front to 44 feet at the back and 61.5 feet deep. Originally it was little over 40 feet deep, but at a much later date it was altered and extended back by one "Marma, a worshipper," as recorded on the wall. It has eight cells on each side, one on the right rather a recess than a cell, two on the left with stone beds, while in the back are two cells to the left of the antechamber and one to the right, with one more on each side of the antechamber and entered from it.^[45]

The hall is surrounded by a low bench as in Cave 3, and in the middle of the floor is a low platform, about 9 feet square, apparently intended for an asana or seat; but whether to place an image upon for worship, or as a "seat of the law", where the Thera or high priest might sit when teaching and discussing, is impossible to say. On the right-hand side, and nearer the front, are three small circular elevations in the floor much like ordinary millstones. They may be seats also for members of the clergy, or bases on which to set small moveable dagobas. But when the cave was altered and extended backward, the floor seems also to have been lowered a few inches to form the low dais and these bases.^[45]

The antechamber is slightly raised above the level of the hall, from which it is divided by two richly carved columns betweenantae. On either side the shrine door is a giganticdvarapala, 9.5 feet high, with an attendant female, but so besmeared with soot for the cave has been long occupied byBhairagis, that minor details are scarcely recognisable. These dvarapalas, however, hold lotus stalks, have the same elaborate head-dresses, with a small dagoba in the front of one, and a figure of Buddha in the other, and have the same attendants andvidyaharas flying over head as we find in the later Buddhist caves atAurangabad.^[45]

In the shrine, too, is the colossal image of Buddha, 10 feet high, seated with his feet on a lotus flower and holding the little finger of his left hand between the thumb and forefinger of his right. He is attended by two gigantic chauri-bearer with the same distinguishing features as the dvarapala. All this points to about the 7th century CE or later, as the age of alteration of this cave.^[45]

Fortunately there is an inscription of the 7th year ofYajna Sri Satakarni (170-199 CE), stating that "after having been under excavation for many years " it was then carried to completion by the wife of the commander-in-chief. It is quite clear, however, that the inner and outer parts were excavated at widely different ages.^[45] This inscriptions shows, as the inscriptions of Yajna Sri Satakarni inKanheri caves, that the Satavahanas had reclaimed the area of Kanheri and Nasik from theWestern Satraps during the reign of Sri Yajna Satakarni.

The pillars of the veranda have the water-pot bases, and the bell-shaped capitals of those inKarle Chaitya. Those of the sanctuary are represented, and belong to a widely distant age. Like No.17, it has a side door near the left end of the veranda, and a cell in that end.^[45]

The façade has four octagonal pillars between antae, the shafts more slender than in any of the other caves, but the bases of the same pattern disproportionately large, as if the shafts had been reduced in thickness at a later date. They stand on a paneled base, with five low steps up to it between the middle pair. A low screen wall in front is nearly quite destroyed, except at the east end, where a passage led to a large irregular and apparently unfinished apartment with two plain octagonal pillars with square bases between pilasters in front, and having a water-cistern at the entrance.^[45]

The caves are located high in the mountains of Trirashmi. Some caves are intricately connected by stone-cut ladders that join them to the other caves. Steps lead to the caves from the bottom of the hill. The peak of the Trirashmi Caves is also accessible by trekking of about 20 mins but the path is treacherous and dangerous.^[49]

• Cetiya
• Ajanta Cave
• Bedse Caves
• Bhaja Caves
• Kanheri Caves
• Karla Caves
• Pitalkhora Caves
• Shivneri Caves

• Inscriptions on Cave 10, 13, 15, 16
• Maharashtratil Buddha Dhammacha Itihas
• M.S.More
• Leni Maharashtrachi
• Dawood Dalvi
• https://web.archive.org/web/20130926230100/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_maha_pandulenacaves.asp

• Harle, J.C.,The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art,ISBN 0300062176
• Michell, George,The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu, 1989, Penguin Books,ISBN 0140081445
• Singh, Upinder (2008).A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India.ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
• Sinopoli, Carla M. (2001). "On the edge of empire: form and substance in the Satavahana dynasty". InSusan E. Alcock (ed.).Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 166–168.ISBN 9780521770200.
• Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya (1974).Some Early Dynasties of South India. Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN 978-81-208-2941-1.

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