Although highly interrelated, the questions of "who wasMenes?" and "who unified Egypt?" are actually two separate issues. Narmer is often credited with theunification of Egypt by means of the conquest ofLower Egypt byUpper Egypt.Menes was the firstpharaoh ofAncient Egypt according to the ancient historianManetho, and is identified by the majority ofEgyptologists as the same person as Narmer – although a vigorous debate also proposes identification withHor-Aha, Narmer's successor, as a primary alternative.[b]
The issue is confusing because "Narmer" is aHorus name while "Menes" is aSedge and Bee name, also known as "prenomen" or "throne name". All of theKing Lists which began to appear in theNew Kingdom only list throne names, and almost all begin withMenes, or begin with divine and/or semi-divine rulers, withMenes as the first "human king". The difficulty is aligning the contemporary archaeological evidence which lists Horus names with the king lists that list personal names.
Naqada Label reconstruction
Two documents have been put forward as proof either that Narmer wasMenes or alternativelyHor-Aha wasMenes. The first is the "Naqada Label" found at the site ofNaqada, in the tomb ofNeithhotep, often assumed to have been the mother ofHorus Aha.[12] The label shows aserekh of Hor-Aha next to an enclosure inside of which are symbols that have been interpreted by some scholars as the name "Menes". The second is the seal impression from Abydos that alternates between aserekh of Narmer and the chessboard symbol, "mn", which is interpreted as an abbreviation of Menes. Arguments have been made with regard to each of these documents in favour of Narmer orHor-Aha beingMenes, but in neither case is the argument conclusive.[c]
Reconstruction of the Narmer-Menes Seal impression from Abydos
The second document, the seal impression from Abydos, shows the serekh of Narmer alternating with the gameboard sign (mn), together with its phonetic complement, then sign, which is always shown when the full name of Menes is written, again representing the name "Menes". At first glance, this would seem to be strong evidence that Narmer was Menes.[16] However, based on an analysis of other earlyFirst Dynasty seal impressions, which contain the name of one or more princes, the seal impression has been interpreted by other scholars as showing the name of a prince of Narmer named Menes, hence Menes was Narmer's successor, Hor-Aha, and thus Hor-Aha was Menes.[17] Cervelló-Autuori has rebutted this (Cervelló-Autuori 2005, pp. 42–45), but opinions still vary, and the seal impression cannot be said to definitively support either theory.[18]
Two necropolis sealings, found in 1985 and 1991 in Abydos (Umm el-Qa'ab), in or near the tombs ofDen[20] (called theDen seal impressions) andQa'a (called the Qa'a sealing),[21] show Narmer as the first king on each list, followed by Hor-Aha. The Qa'a sealing lists all eight of the kings of what scholars now call the First Dynasty in the correct order, starting with Narmer. These necropolis sealings are strong evidence that Narmer was the first king of the First Dynasty, hence the same person as Menes.[22]
Serekhs bearing therebus symbolsn'r (catfish) andmr (chisel) inside, being the phonetic representation of Narmer's name[23]
The complete spelling of Narmer's name consists of the hieroglyphs for acatfish (nꜥr)[d] and a chisel (mr), hence the reading "Narmer" (using therebus principle). This word is sometimes translated as "raging catfish".[25] However, there is no consensus on this reading. Other translations of the adjective before "catfish" include "angry", "fighting", "fierce", "painful", "furious", "bad", "evil", "biting", "menacing", and "stinging".[4][5][6] Some scholars have taken entirely different approaches to reading the name that do not include "catfish" in the name at all,[26][27][28] but these approaches have not been generally accepted.
Rather than incorporating both hieroglyphs, Narmer's name is often shown in an abbreviated form with just the catfish symbol, sometimes stylized, even, in some cases, represented by just a horizontal line.[29][full citation needed] This simplified spelling appears to be related to the formality of the context. In every case that aserekh is shown on a work of stone or an official seal impression, it has both symbols. But, in most cases, where the name is shown on a piece of pottery or a rock inscription, just the catfish, or a simplified version of it appears.
Two alternative spellings of Narmer's name have also been found. On a mud sealing fromTarkhan, the symbol for theṯꜣj-bird (Gardiner signG47 "duckling") has been added to the two symbols for "Narmer" within the serekh. This has been interpreted as meaning "Narmer the masculine";[30] however, according to Ilona Regulski,[31] "The third sign (the [ṯꜣj]-bird) is not an integral part of the royal name since it occurs so infrequently." Godron[32] suggested that the extra sign is not part of the name, but was put inside the serekh for compositional convenience.
In addition, two necropolis seals fromAbydos show the name in a unique way: While thechisel is shown conventionally where thecatfish would be expected, there is a symbol that has been interpreted by several scholars as an animal skin.[33] According toDreyer, it is probably a catfish with a bull's tail, similar to the image of Narmer on theNarmer Palette in which he is shown wearing a bull's tail as a symbol of power.[34]
The famousNarmer Palette, discovered byJames E. Quibell in the 1897–1898 season atHierakonpolis,[38] shows Narmer wearing the crown of Upper Egypt on one side of the palette, and the crown of Lower Egypt on the other side, giving rise to the theory that Narmer unified the two lands.[39] Since its discovery, however, it has been debated whether the Narmer Palette represents an actual historic event or is purely symbolic.[f] Of course, the Narmer Palette could represent an actual historical event while at the same time having a symbolic significance.
In 1993,Günter Dreyer discovered a "year label" of Narmer at Abydos, depicting the same event that is depicted on the Narmer Palette. In the First Dynasty, years were identified by the name of the king and an important event that occurred in that year. A "year label" was typically attached to a container of goods and included the name of the king, a description or representation of the event that identified the year, and a description of the attached goods. This year label shows that the Narmer Palette depicts an actual historical event.[40] Support for this conclusion (in addition to Dreyer) includes Wilkinson[41] and Davies &Friedman.[42] Although this interpretation of the year label is the dominant opinion among Egyptologists, there are exceptions includingBaines[43] andWengrow.[44]
Narmer Macehead (drawing). The design shows captives being presented to Pharaoh Narmer enthroned in anaos.Ashmolean Museum,Oxford.[46]
The scene depicts a ceremony in which captives and plunder are presented to King Narmer, who is enthroned beneath a canopy on a stepped platform. He wears the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, holds a flail, and is wrapped in a long cloak. To the left, Narmer's name is written inside a representation of the palace facade (theserekh) surmounted by a falcon. At the bottom is a record of animal and human plunder; 400,000 cattle, 1,422,000 goats, and 120,000 captives.[45]
Archaeological evidence suggests that Egypt was at least partially unified during the reigns ofKa andIry-Hor (Narmer's immediate predecessors), and perhaps as early asScorpion I. Tax collection is probably documented for Ka[47] and Iry-Hor.[48] The evidence for a role for Scorpion I in Lower Egypt comes from his tomb Uj in Abydos (Upper Egypt), where labels were found identifying goods from Lower Egypt.[49] These are not tax documents, however, so they are probably indications of trade rather than subjugation. There is a substantial difference in the quantity and distribution of inscriptions with the names of those earlier kings in Lower Egypt andCanaan (which was reached through Lower Egypt), compared to the inscriptions of Narmer. Ka's inscriptions have been found in three sites in Lower Egypt and one in Canaan.[50] Iry-Hor inscriptions have also been found in two sites in Lower Egypt and one in Canaan.[50][51] This must be compared to Narmer, whoseserekhs have been found in ten sites in Lower Egypt and nine sites in Canaan (see discussion in "Tomb and Artefacts" section). This demonstrates a qualitative difference between Narmer's role in Lower Egypt compared to his two immediate predecessors. There is no evidence in Lower Egypt of any Upper Egyptian king's presence before Iry-Hor. The archaeological evidence suggest that the unification began before Narmer, but was completed by him through the conquest of a polity in the north-west Delta as depicted on the Narmer Palette.[52]
The importance that Narmer attached to his "unification" of Egypt is shown by the fact that it is commemorated not only on the Narmer Palette, but on a cylinder seal,[53] the Narmer Year Label,[40] and the Narmer Boxes;[54] and the consequences of the event are commemorated on theNarmer Macehead.[55] The importance of the unification to ancient Egyptians is shown by the fact that Narmer is shown as the first king on the two necropolis seals, and under the name Menes, the first king in the later King Lists. Although there is archaeological evidence of a few kings before Narmer, none of them are mentioned in any of those sources. It can be accurately said that from the point of view of Ancient Egyptians, history began with Narmer and the unification of Egypt, and that everything before him was relegated to the realm of myth.
According toManetho, quoted byEusebius (Fr. 7a), "Menes made a foreign expedition and won renown." If this is correct (and assuming it refers to Narmer), it was undoubtedly to the land ofCanaan where Narmer'sserekh has been identified at nine different sites. An Egyptian presence in Canaan predates Narmer, but after about 200 years of active presence in Canaan,[56] Egyptian presence peaked during Narmer's reign and quickly declined afterwards. The relationship between Egypt and Canaan "began around the end of the fifth millennium and apparently came to an end sometime during the Second Dynasty when it ceased altogether."[57] It peaked during Dynasty 0 through the reign of Narmer.[58] Dating to this period are 33 Egyptianserekhs found in Canaan,[58] among which 20 have been attributed to Narmer. Prior to Narmer, only oneserekh of Ka and one inscription with Iry-Hor's name have been found in Canaan.[59] Theserekhs earlier than Iry-Hor are either genericserekhs that do not refer to a specific king, or are for kings not attested in Abydos.[58] Indicative of the decline of Egyptian presence in the region after Narmer, only oneserekh attributed to his successor, Hor-Aha, has been found in Canaan.[58] Even this one example is questionable, Wilkinson does not believe there are anyserekhs of Hor-Aha outside Egypt[60] and very fewserekhs of kings for the rest of the first two dynasties have been found in Canaan.[61]
The Egyptian presence in Canaan is best demonstrated by the presence of pottery made from Egyptian Nile clay and found in Canaan,[g] as well as pottery made from local clay, but in the Egyptian style. The latter suggests the existence of Egyptian colonies rather than just trade.[63]
The nature of Egypt's role in Canaan has been vigorously debated, between scholars who suggest a military invasion[64] and others proposing that only trade and colonization were involved. The latter has gained predominance.[63][65]Tell es-Sakan was a walled city dating to Dynasty 0 through early Dynasty 1 period, and built almost entirely using an Egyptian style of construction. As the only fortified Egyptian site in the region it likely functioned as a centre of administration.[66]
Regardless of the nature of Egypt's presence in Canaan, control of trade to (and through) Canaan was important to Ancient Egypt. Narmer probably did not establish Egypt's initial influence in Canaan by a military invasion, but a military campaign by Narmer to re-assert Egyptian authority, or to increase its sphere of influence in the region, is certainly plausible. In addition to the quote by Manetho, and the large number of Narmerserekhs found in Canaan, a recent reconstruction of a box of Narmer's by Dreyer may have commemorated a military campaign in Canaan.[67] It may also represent just the presentation of tribute to Narmer by Canaanites.[67]
Narmer and Hor-Aha's names were both found in what is believed to beNeithhotep's tomb, which led Egyptologists to conclude that she was Narmer's queen and mother of Hor-Aha.[68] Neithhotep's name means "Neith is satisfied". This suggests that she was a princess of Lower Egypt (based on the fact that Neith is the patron goddess ofSais in the Western Delta, exactly the area Narmer conquered to complete the unification of Egypt), and that this was a marriage to consolidate the two regions of Egypt.[68] The fact that her tomb is inNaqada, in Upper Egypt, has led some to the conclusion that she was a descendant of the predynastic rulers of Naqada who ruled prior to its incorporation into a united Upper Egypt.[69] It has also been suggested that theNarmer Macehead commemorates this wedding.[70] However, the discovery in 2012 of rock inscriptions in Sinai byPierre Tallet[71] raise questions about whether she was really Narmer's wife.[h] Neithhotep is probably the earliest non-mythical woman in history whose name is known to us today.[73]
Chambers B17 and B18 in theUmm el-Qa'ab, which constitute the tomb of Narmer
Narmer's tomb inUmm el-Qa'ab nearAbydos in Upper Egypt consists of two joined chambers (B17 and B18), lined in mud brick. Although bothÉmile Amélineau andPetrie excavated tombs B17 and B18, it was only in 1964 thatKaiser identified them as being Narmer's.[74][full citation needed][i] Narmer's tomb is located next to the tombs ofKa, who likely ruledUpper Egypt just before Narmer, andHor-Aha, who was his immediate successor.[j]
As the tomb dates back more than 5,000 years, andhas been pillaged, repeatedly, from antiquity to modern times, it is amazing that anything useful could be discovered in it. Because of the repeateddisturbances in Umm el-Qa'ab, many articles of Narmer's were found in other graves, and objects of other kings were recovered in Narmer's grave. However,Flinders Petrie during the period 1899–1903,[77][78] and, starting in the 1970s, theGerman Archaeological Institute (DAI)[k] have made discoveries of the greatest importance to the history of Early Egypt by their re-excavation of the tombs of Umm el-Qa'ab.
Despite the chaotic condition of the cemetery, inscriptions on both wood and bone, seal impressions, as well as dozens offlint arrowheads were found. (Petrie says with dismay that "hundreds" of arrowheads were discovered by "the French", presumablyAmélineau. What happened to them is not clear, but none ended up in the Cairo Museum.[79]) Flint knives and a fragment of anebony chair leg were also discovered in Narmer's tomb, all of which might be part of the original funeraryassemblage. The flint knives and fragment of a chair leg were not included in any of Petrie's publications, but are now at thePetrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology (University College London), registration numbersUC35679, UC52786, andUC35682. According to Dreyer,[34][unreliable source] these arrowheads are probably from the tomb ofDjer, where similar arrowheads were found.[80]
It is likely that all of the kings of Ancient Egypt buried in Umm el-Qa'ab had funerary enclosures in Abydos' northern cemetery, near the cultivation line. These were characterized by large mud brick walls that enclosed space in which funerary ceremonies are believed to have taken place. Eight enclosures have been excavated, two of which have not been definitely identified.[81][82] While it has yet to be confirmed, one of these unidentified funerary enclosures may have belonged to Narmer.[l]
Narmerserekh in its full formal format on an alabaster vase from Abydos
Narmer is well attested throughout Egypt, southernCanaan and Sinai: altogether 98 inscriptions at 26 sites.[m] At Abydos and Hierakonpolis Narmer's name appears both within aserekh and without reference to aserekh. At every other site except Coptos, Narmer's name appears in aserekh. In Egypt, his name has been found at 17 sites:
During Narmer's reign, Egypt had an active economic presence in southern Canaan. Potterysherds have been discovered at several sites, both from pots made in Egypt and imported to Canaan and others made in the Egyptian style out of local materials. Twentyserekhs have been found in Canaan that may belong to Narmer, but seven of those are uncertain or controversial. Theseserekhs came from eight different sites:Tel Arad,[113][114] En Besor (Ein HaBesor),[115][116]Tell es-Sakan,[117][118] Nahal Tillah (Halif Terrace),[119]Tel Erani (Tel Gat),[120][121] SmallTel Malhata [fr],[122][123] Tel Ma'ahaz,[124] and TelLod,[125]
Narmer'sserekh, along with those of other Predynastic and Early Dynastic kings, has been found at the Wadi 'Ameyra in the southern Sinai, where inscriptions commemorate Egyptian mining expeditions to the area.[126][127]
Limestone head of a king, thought byFlinders Petrie to be Narmer, on the basis of the similarity to the head of Narmer on the Narmer Palette. This has not been generally accepted by Egyptologists.
First recorded at the end of the 19th century, an important series of rock carvings at Nag el-Hamdulab nearAswan was rediscovered in 2009, and its importance only realized then.[128][full citation needed][129][130] Among the many inscriptions, tableau 7a shows a man wearing a headdress similar to theWhite Crown ofUpper Egypt and carrying a scepter. He is followed by a man with a fan. He is then preceded by two men with standards, and accompanied by a dog. Apart from the dog motif, this scene is similar to scenes on theScorpion Macehead and the recto of the Narmer Palette. The man, equipped with pharaonic regalia (the crown and scepter), can clearly be identified as a king. Although no name appears in the tableau, Darnell[129] attributes it to Narmer, based on the iconography, and suggests that it might represent an actual visit to the region by Narmer for a "Following of Horus" ritual. In an interview in 2012, Gatto[131][full citation needed] also describes the king in the inscription as Narmer. However, Hendricks (2016) places the scene slightly before Narmer, based, in part on the uncharacteristic absence of Narmer's royal name in the inscription.
The First Pharaoh (The First Dynasty Book 1) by Lester Picker is a fictionalized biography of Narmer. The author consulted with EgyptologistGünter Dreyer to achieve authenticity.[132]
Murder by the Gods: An Ancient Egyptian Mystery by William G. Collins is a thriller about Prince Aha (later kingHor-Aha), with Narmer included in a secondary role.[133]
Pharaoh: The Boy who Conquered the Nile byJackie French is a children's book (ages 10–14) about the adventures of Prince Narmer.[134]
The Third Gate byLincoln Child is the third book in the Jeremy Logan series and revolves primarily around the discovery and exploration of a fictional secret burial place of Narmer.
Warframe uses Narmer's name for a faction added inThe New War update that shares some similarities to the pharaoh's reign.[135]
InThe Kane Chronicles byRick Riordan, one of siblings Carter and Sadie's parents comes from Narmer's lineage, the other from Ramses the Great (book one,The Red Pyramid, page 195).
A mud jar sealing indicating that the contents came from the estate of Narmer. Originally fromTarkhan, now on display at theMetropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Incised inscription on a vessel found at Tarkhan (tomb 414), naming Narmer;Petrie Museum, UC 16083
Alabaster statue of a baboon divinity with the name of Narmer inscribed on its base, on display at theEgyptian Museum of Berlin
Drawing of Narmerserekh on pottery vessel with stylized catfish and without chisel or falcon, copyright Kafr Hassan Dawood Mission
Arrowheads from Narmer's tomb, Petrie 1905, Royal Tombs II, pl. IV.14. According to Dreyer,[34] these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of Djer, where similar arrowheads were found.[136]
Photograph of sherd showing Narmer serekh from Nahal Tillah without the chisel sign to spell his name. Used with permission of copyright holder, Thomas E. Levy, Levantine and Cyber-Archaeology Laboratory,University of California San Diego
^abcEgyptologists have long debated whetherMenes was the same person as Narmer orHor-Aha, Narmer's successor. A 2014 study byThomas C. Heagy published in the Egyptological journalArchéo-Nil compiled a list of 69 Egyptologists who took either position. Forty-one of them have concluded thatMenes was Narmer, while 31 have concluded thatMenes wasHor-Aha. Three Egyptologists—Flinders Petrie,Kurt Sethe andStan Hendrickx [fr]—on the list have first concluded thatMenes wasHor-Aha, but later concluded thatMenes was Narmer.[8]
^abcThe question of who was Menes—hence, who was the first king of theFirst Dynasty has been hotly debated. Since 1897, 70 different authors have taken an opinion on whether it is Narmer or Aha.[8] Most of these are only passing references, but there have been several in depth analyses on both sides of the issues. Recent discussions in favor of Narmer includeKinnaer 2001,Cervelló-Autuori 2005, andHeagy 2014. Detailed discussions in favor of Aha includeHelck 1953,Emery 1961, pp. 31–37, andDreyer 2007. For the most part, English speaking authors favor Narmer, while German speaking authors favorHor-Aha. The most important evidence in favor of Narmer are the two necropolis seal impressions fromAbydos, which list Narmer as the first king. Since the publication of the first of thenecropolis sealings in 1987, 28 authors have published articles identifying Narmer withMenes compared to 14 who identify Narmer withHor-Aha.
^In the upper right hand quarter of theNaqada label is aserekh ofHor-Aha. To its right is a hill-shaped triple enclosure with the "mn" sign surmounted by the signs of the "two ladies", the goddesses ofUpper Egypt (Nekhbet) andLower Egypt (Wadjet). In later contexts, the presence of the "two ladies" would indicate a "nbty" name (one of the five names of the king). Hence, the inscription was interpreted as showing that the "nbty" name ofHor-Aha was "Mn" short forMenes.[13] An alternative theory is that the enclosure was afuneral shrine and it represents Hor-Aha burying his predecessor, Menes. Hence Menes was Narmer.[14] Although the label generated a lot of debate, it is now generally agreed that the inscription in the shrine is not a king's name, but is the name of the shrine "The Two Ladies Endure", and provide no evidence for who Menes was.[15]
^ Although the catfish portrayed in Narmer's name has sometimes been described as an "electric catfish", based on its fin configuration, it is actually of the non-electricHeterobranchus genus.[24]
^According toSchulman harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchulman (help) the Narmer Palette commemorates a conquest of Libyans that occurred earlier than Narmer, probably during Dynasty 0. Libyans, in this context, were not people who inhabited what is modern Libya, but rather peoples who lived in the north-west Delta of the Nile, which later became a part of Lower Egypt.Schulman describes scenes fromDynasty V (2 scenes),Dynasty VI, andDynasty XXV. In each of these, the king is shown defeating the Libyans, personally killing their chief in a classic "smiting the enemy" pose. In three of these post-Narmer examples, the name of the wife and two sons of the chief are named—and they are the same names for all three scenes from vastly different periods. This proves that all, but the first representation, cannot be recording actual events, but are ritual commemorations of an earlier event. The same might also be true of the first example in Dynasty V.The scene on the Narmer Palette is similar, although it does not name the wife or sons of the Libyan chief. The Narmer Palette could represent the actual event on which the others are based. However, Schulman (followingBreasted 1931) argues against this on the basis that the Palermo Stone shows predynastic kings wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt suggesting that they ruled a unified Egypt. Hence, the Narmer Palette, rather than showing a historic event during Narmer's reign commemorates the defeat of the Libyans and the unification of Egypt which occurred earlier.Köhler 2002, p. 505 proposes that the Narmer Palette has nothing to do with the unification of Egypt. Instead, she describes it as an example of the "subjecting the enemy" motif which goes back as far asNaqada Ic (about 400 years before Narmer), and which represents the ritual defeat of chaos, a fundamental role of the king.O'Connor 2011 also argues that it has nothing to do with the unification, but has a (very complicated) religious meaning.
^ In 2012, Pierre Tallet discovered an important new series of rock carvings inWadi Ameyra. This discovery was reported inTallet 2015, and in 2016 in two web articles by Owen Jarus[72] These inscriptions strongly suggest that Neithhotep was Djer's regent for a period of time, but do not resolve the question of whether she was Narmer's queen. In the first of Jarus' articles, he quotes Tallet as saying that Neithhotep "was not the wife of Narmer". However, Tallet, in a personal communication with Thomas C. Heagy explained that he had been misquoted. According to Tallet, she could have been Narmer's wife (Djer's grandmother), but that it is more likely (because Narmer and Hor-Aha are both thought to have had long reigns) that she was in the next generation—for example Djer's mother or aunt. This is consistent with the discussion inTallet 2015, pp. 28–29.
^ For a discussion of Cemetery B seeDreyer 1999, pp. 110–11, fig. 7 andWilkinson 2000, pp. 29–32, fig. 2
^ Narmer's tomb has much more in common with the tombs of his immediate predecessors, Ka and Iry-Hor, and other late Predynastic tombs in Umm el-Qa'ab than it does with later 1st Dynasty tombs. Narmer's tomb is 31 sq. meters compared to Hor-Aha, whose tomb is more than three times as large, not counting Hor-Aha's 36 subsidiary graves. According to Deyer,[75] Narmer's tomb is even smaller than the tomb of Scorpion I (tombUj), several generations earlier.[76][full citation needed] In addition, the earlier tombs of Narmer, Ka, and Iry-Hor all have two chambers with no subsidiary chambers, while later tombs in the 1st Dynasty all have more complex structures including subsidiary chambers for the tombs of retainers, who were probably sacrificed to accompany the king in the afterlife.O'Connor 2009, pp. 148–150 To avoid confusion, it's important to understand that he classifies Narmer as the last king of the 0 Dynasty rather than the first king of the 1st Dynasty, in part because Narmer's tomb has more in common with the earlier 0 Dynasty tombs than it does with the later 1st Dynasty tombs.Dreyer 2003, p. 64 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDreyer2003 (help)[full citation needed] also makes the argument that the major shift in tomb construction that began with Hor-Aha, is evidence that Hor-Aha, rather than Narmer was the first king of the 1st Dynasty.
^Numerous publications with either Werner Kaiser or his successor,Günter Dreyer, as the lead author—most of them published in MDAIK beginning in 1977
^Next to Hor-Aha's enclosure is a large, unattributed enclosure referred to as the "Donkey Enclosure" because of the presence of 10 donkeys buried next to the enclosure. No objects were found in the enclosure with a king's name, but hundreds of seal impressions were found in the gateway chamber of the enclosure, all of which appear to date to the reigns of Narmer, Hor-Aha, or Djer. Hor-Aha and Djer both have enclosures identified, "making Narmer the most attractive candidate for the builder of this monument".[83] The main objection to its assignment to Narmer is that the enclosure is too big. It is larger than all three of Hor-Aha's put together, while Hor-Aha's tomb is much larger than Narmer's tomb. For all of the clearly identified 1st Dynasty enclosures, there is a rough correlation between the size of the tomb and the size of the enclosure. Identifying the Donkey Enclosure with Narmer would violate that correlation. That leaves Hor-Aha and Djer. The objection to the assignment of the enclosure to Aha is the inconsistency of the subsidiary graves of Hor-Aha's enclosure, and subsidiary graves of the donkeys. In addition, the seeming completeness of the Aha enclosure without the Donkey Enclosure, argues against Hor-Aha. This leaves Djer, whom Bestock considers the most likely candidate. The problems with this conclusion, as identified by Bestock, are that the Donkey Enclosure has donkeys in the subsidiary graves, whereas Djer has humans in his. In addition, there are no large subsidiary graves at Djer's tomb complex that would correspond to the Donkey Enclosure.[84] She concludes that, "the interpretation and attribution of the Donkey Enclosure remain speculative."[85]There are, however, two additional arguments for the attribution to Narmer: First, it is exactly where one would expect to find Narmer's Funerary Enclosure—immediately next to Hor-Aha's. Second, all of the 1st Dynasty tombs have subsidiary graves for humans except that of Narmer, and all of the attributed 1st Dynasty enclosures, except the Donkey Enclosure, have subsidiary graves for humans. But neither Narmer's tomb nor the Donkey Enclosure have known subsidiary graves for humans. The lack of human subsidiary graves at both sites seems important. It is also possible that Narmer had a large funerary enclosure precisely because he had a small tomb.[86][full citation needed][87] In the absence of finding an object with a Narmer's name on it, any conclusion must be tentative, but it seems that the preponderance of evidence and logic support the identification of the Donkey Enclosure with Narmer.
^Of these inscriptions, 29 are controversial or uncertain. They include the unique examples from Coptos, En Besor,Tell el-Farkha,Gebel Tjauti, and Kharga Oasis, as well as both inscriptions each from Buto and Tel Ma'ahaz. Sites with more than one inscription are footnoted with either references to the most representative inscriptions, or to sources that are the most important for that site. All of the inscriptions are included in theNarmer Catalog, which also includes extensive bibliographies for each inscription. Several references discuss substantial numbers of inscriptions. They include:Database of Early Dynastic Inscriptions,Kaplony 1963,Kaplony 1964,Kaiser & Dreyer 1982,Kahl 1994,van den Brink 1996,van den Brink 2001,Jiménez-Serrano 2003,Jiménez-Serrano 2007, andPätznick 2009.Anđelković 1995 includes Narmer inscriptions from Canaan within the context of the overall relations between Canaan and Early Egypt, including descriptions of the sites in which they were found.
Adams, Matthew;O'Connor, David (2003), "The Royal mortuary enclosures of Abydos and Hierakonpolis", in Hawass, Zahi (ed.),The treasures of the pyramids, Cairo:American University in Cairo Press, pp. 78–85.
Amiran, Ruth (1974), "An Egyptian jar fragment with the name of Narmer from Arad",IEJ,24, 1:4–12
Amiran, R.; Ilan, O.; Aron, C. (1983), "Excavations at Small Tel Malhata: Three Narmer serekhs",IEJ,2:75–83.
Anđelković, B (1995),The Relations Between Early Bronze Age I Canaanites and Upper Egyptians, Belgrade: Faculty of Philosophy, Center for archaeological Research,ISBN978-86-80269-17-7.
——— (2011), "Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period", in Teeter, E (ed.),Before the Pyramids, Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago,ISBN978-1-885923-82-0.
Baines, J (1995), "Origins of Egyptian Kingship", in O'Connor, D; Silverman, DP (eds.),Ancient Egyptian Kingship, Leiden, New York, Cologne: EJ Brill, pp. 95–156,ISBN978-90-04-10041-1.
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![Arrowheads from Narmer's tomb, Petrie 1905, Royal Tombs II, pl. IV.14. According to Dreyer,[34] these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of Djer, where similar arrowheads were found.[136]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFlint_arroheads_from_Narmer%2527s_tomb.jpg)
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