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TheNambudiri (Malayalam:[n̪ɐmbuːd̪iɾi,n̪ɐmbuːɾi]), also transliterated asNampoothiri,Nambūdiri,Namboodiri,Namboothiri,Namboodri, Namboori, andNampūtiri, are aMalayali Brahmin caste, native to what is now the state ofKerala, India, where they constituted part of the traditional feudal elite.[1] Headed by the Azhvanchery Thamprakkal Samrāṭ, the Nambudiris were the highest ranking caste in Kerala.[2][3] They owned a large portion of the land in the region ofMalabar District,[4] and together with theNair monarchs of Kerala,[5] the Nambudiris formed the landed aristocracy known as theJenmimar,[6][7] until theKerala Land Reforms starting in 1957.[8]
The Nambudiris have traditionally lived inancestral homes known asIllams and have been described by anthropologist Joan Mencher as, "A wealthy, aristocratic landed caste of the highest ritual and secular rank."[9] Venerated as the carriers of theSanskrit language and ancientVedic culture, the Nambudiris held more power and authority than the kings and were "above and outside the political systems of the kingdoms."[10][11]
Nambudiri mythology associates their immigration to Kerala from the banks ofNarmada,Krishna,Kaveri rivers with the legendary creation of Kerala byParashurama, the sixthavatar ofVishnu.[12] According to this legend, the region was created when Parashurama threw his axe into the sea[13] Although it is known that the present-day region of Kerala was once governed by theChera dynasty, little information exists regarding its early ethnography.[14] Brahmin presence in the Tamil country is attested from theSangam period onward. Based on the fact that Nambudiris are Pūrvaśikhā Brahmins wearing the traditional hair tuft on the front, T.P Mahadevan proposes that they are the descendants of these Sangam ageBrahmins who moved west into the region of Malabar during theKalabhra interregnum, with those remaining behind in what is todayTamil Nadu composing the Śōḻiya Brahmins.[15][16] This sets them apart from the later Aparaśikhā Brahmin (wearing their hair tufts on the back) migrants to South India such as the TamilIyers. According to T.P Mahadevan, the Nambudiris brought with them a very early recension of theMahabharata which became the basis of the Malayalam language version of the epic.[17][18]
There are lots of theories as to how NambudiriBrahmins came to settle in Kerala, the commonly accepted point of view is that they moved in fromNorth India viaTulu Nadu orKarnataka.[19] Another theory based on the retention ofMahabharata types as memorized by differentBrahmin communities points toTamil Nadu as the base from which they migrated to Kerala via thePalakkad Gap, which is also the largest opening in the southernWestern Ghats, and settled around the riverBharathappuzha.[20] The region aroundCoimbatore nearKarnataka- westernTamil Nadu border was ruled by theCheras duringSangam period between 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to thePalakkad Gap, the principal trade route between theMalabar Coast andTamil Nadu.[21] TheAzhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were the titular head of all Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, originally had right over parts of present-dayPalakkad Taluk.[19] Later they moved westwards along the RiverBharathappuzha and settled around the river. Finally theAzhvanchery Thamprakkal bought Athavanad-Tirunavaya region in present-dayTirur Taluk and gavePalakkad toPalakkad Rajas (Tarur Swaroopam) who were originally fromAthavanad region.[19] Many of the oldest Nambudiri settlements of Kerala are situated around the RiverBharathappuzha.[19] TheKingdom of Tanur,Kingdom of Valluvanad,Perumpadappu Swaroopam, and the kingdom ofPalakkad, located around the riverBharathappuzha, were once strongholds of Nambudiris.[19] The introduction ofGrantha script which later got evolved intoMalayalam script, and the evolution of Malayalam language throughSanskritisation of west coast dialect of earlyMiddle Tamil is thought to be related to this migration.[22][19]
AnthropologistsHeike Moser and Paul Younger note that the Nambudiri Brahmin presence predates the 9th century, as attested by grants of land given to them byruling families.[23] According to the historianRomila Thapar, local kings and chiefs encouraged them to move to the area by offering such tax-exempt land grants in return for them officiating in Vedic rites that would legitimise the grantors' status as rulers.[24] They also gained land and improved their influence over the socio-economic life of the region by helping rulers during the wars between theChola andChera dynasties when Vedic schools were turned into military academies.[25]
Adi Shankara, one of the most revered Vedic scholars of Hinduism, was a Nambudiriascetic[26][27] who initiated the protocol of permitting only Nambudiris to lead as the Chief Priest at theBadrinath Temple, one of the holiest temples for Hindus.[28] Furthermore, the spiritual leader of the Nambudiri Brahmins is given the titleAzhvanchery Thamprakkal Samrāṭ, with the word "Samrāṭ" meaning "Emperor" in theSanskrit language. Aside from holding rights over the sacredGuruvayur Temple, the presence and blessings of theAzhvanchery Thamprakkal was a ritual necessity during the coronation of theZamorin, theNair king ofKozhikode.[29]
They have historically been distinguished by rare practices such as the adherence toŚrautaritualism, thePūrva-Mīmāṁsā school ofHindu philosophy and orthodox traditions,[30] as well as many idiosyncratic customs that are unique amongBrahmins, includingprimogeniture.Cyriac Pullapilly mentions that the dominating influence of the Nambudiris could be found in all matters related toKerala, including religion, politics, society, economics and culture.[31]
Operating from theirillam houses, Nambudiris' ownership of agricultural land under thejanmi system increased over many centuries and, according to Moser and Younger, they "established landholding temples and taught the people the rules of caste". The Nambudiris have been described to be responsible for the Sanskrit influence onMalayalam, a Dravidian language, due to the Nambudiri Brahmin's mixing ofSanskrit and the local west coast dialect of early middleTamil language.[23][32]
Medieval Kerala has been characterised as an oligarchy which was dominated by the Nambudiris, who owned all the temples and their subsidiary villages.[33] The Nambudiris had influence with the ruling class through the practice ofsambandam, where younger Nambudiris used to have relationships with Kshatriya women or women from the upper sections of the Nair caste. The children of such unions were not considered Nambudiris, but a part of their matrilocal lineages.[33] As a result of such unions, many kings and ruling chiefs in Kerala would be the offspring of Nambudiri fathers. These arrangements allowed the Nambudiris to gain political power in addition to religious and cultural dominance.[33] In certain parts of Kerala, especially Edapally and Paravur, Nambudiri families gained the position of local kings.[34] The descendants of the Parur Raja, a Nambudiri family still receive a pension from the government. There is an ongoing case as to the specifics of the amount being received.[35]
The Nambudiri's grip on land was maintained through the practice of strictprimogeniture andpatrilineal inheritance.[23] Despite their younger members havinghypergamous relationships withNairs, whose caste traditions werematrilineal, Nambudiri families remained aloof from general society.[23] Although the historian E. K. Pillai has claimed that the Nambudiris from the 1100s enforced matrilinealpolyandry on the previously patrilineal communities of the area, sociologistRandall Collins thinks it is unlikely that such a change could be imposed and says that "more probably it was the result of a process of marriage politics spread by emulation in the decentralised situation of status competition." Some other scholars believe that the matrilineal customs predate the period entirely and cite the queens of thePandyan dynasty as evidence for this.[24]
The unwillingness of Nambudiris to adapt to changes in wider society persisted until the early years of the 20th century butSusan Bayly believes that their decline in significance can be traced to the period 1729-1748 whenMarthanda Varma established theKingdom of Travancore and chose to useIyer andDeshastha Brahmins fromTamil Nadu in his civil service. She believes that decision undermined the relationship between the Nambudiri Brahmins and royalty in the region, although others have said that Varma's influence was short-lived and that the main cause of change was the influence of British diplomats who worked with the Travancore Maharaja in the 19th century. After the passing of the Charter Acts of 1833 and 1853 in the British Parliament, the British encouraged the work of Christian missionaries, notably in provision of education, and began the introduction of a judicial system that would have a significant impact on the landholdings, inheritance customs and marriage arrangements of both the Nambudiris and Nairs. The traditional basis of life was challenged by these and other changes, affecting also the other major ethnic groups of the area, such as theEzhavas and theSyrian Christians.[23] Like others, the desire for social reform went strong among the Nambudiris which led to the formation of theYogakshema movement in 1908 in order to agitate for the marriage of all the junior males within the community itself. It also focused on popularising the English language study and abolishing thePurdah system among the Nambudiri females.[36]
The Nambudhiri Brahmins are a super-minority community in Kerala. According to the 1901 Census reports, they represent 0.47% of the total population of Nambudiris within Kerala.[37] They are dominant and highly influential inBritish Malabar, where they account for more than 66% of the total population of Nambudiris in Kerala.[38] Most of them reside in thePalakkad andKozhikode districts ofSouth Malabar and theKannur district ofNorth Malabar. A small Population is also found inCochin andTravancore Kingdom.[39]
The following Vedicrecensions are attested among them.[40]
The ancient Vedic ritual ofAgnicayana (the altar of fire), which spans a 12-day period and whichFrits Staal and Robert Gardner claim to be one of the oldest known rituals, was maintained by Nambudiri Brahmins until at least 1975. Although it may have largely died out elsewhere in India and thus be symptomatic of the community's resistance to change,[41] David Knipe notes that it is still performed regularly inAndhra Pradesh and has been for centuries.[42]
Traditionally, they wore a simple cloth around the waist called a thorthu (orthortumundu), in domestic settings. When they had to travel, they wore two sets of cloth in addition known as a vasthram.[citation needed]
Nambudiris wore their traditional hair tufts (kuṭumi orśikhā) on the front like theDikshitars of Tamil Nadu.[43][44]
Nambudiri Brahmin families practised a more strict version ofprimogeniture than Brahmin communities elsewhere in India. Under this custom, only the eldest son could marry a Nambudiri woman and thus produce an heir to the family property. Younger sons were restricted tosambandam relationships with non-Brahmin women, whom the Nambudiris considered to be concubines and whose offspring could not inherit.[45] This tradition limited the extent of marriage within their own caste and led to the practice of hypergamy with the Nair community.Kathleen Gough notes that:
These hypergamous unions were regarded by Brahmans as socially acceptableconcubinage, for the union was not initiated with Vedic rites, the children were not legitimized as Brahmans, and neither the woman nor her child was accorded the rights of kin. By the matrilineal castes, however, the same unions were regarded as marriage, for they fulfilled the conditions of ordinary Nayar marriage and served to legitimize the child as an acceptable member of his matrilineal lineage and caste."[46]
The disparity in caste ranking in a relationship between a Brahmin man and a Nair woman meant that the woman was unable to live with her husband(s) in the Brahmin family and so remained in her own family. The children resulting from such marriages always became Nairs.K. M. Panikkar argues that it is this type of relationship that resulted in the matrilineal andmatrilocal system.[47] It has also been argued that the practice, along with judicious selection of the man who tied thethali, formed a part of the Nair aspirational culture whereby they would seek to improve their status within the caste. Furthermore, that:
... among the higher-ranking Nayars (and Kshatriyas and Samantans) in contradistinction to the "commoner" Nayars, no two subdivisions admitted to equal status. Thus the relations set up by the tali-rite [ie: thethalikettu kalyanam] and the sambandham union were always hypergamous.[48]
Although it is certain that in theory hypergamy can cause a shortage of marriageable women in the lowest ranks of a caste and promote upwards social movement from the lower Nair subdivisions, the numbers involved would have been very small. It was not a common practice outside the higher subcaste groups and the Nambudiris had mostly stopped the practice by the 1920s.[48]
The form of Sanskrit theatre known asKoodiyattam, which is native to Kerala, was traditionally patronised by Nambudiris.[citation needed]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)badrinath + buddhist shrine.
