| Nagarjuna Konda | |
|---|---|
 Ruins of the site | |
| Location | Macherla mandal,Palnadu district,Andhra Pradesh, India |
| Coordinates | 16°31′18.82″N79°14′34.26″E / 16.5218944°N 79.2428500°E /16.5218944; 79.2428500 |
| Governing body | Archaeological Survey of India |
  Location of Nagarjuna Konda in India | |
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Nagarjunakonda (ISO: Nāgārjunikoṇḍā, meaningNagarjuna Hill) is a historical town, now an island located nearNagarjuna Sagar inPalnadu district of theIndian state ofAndhra Pradesh.[2][3] It is one of India's historical Buddhist sites, and now lies almost entirely under the lake created by theNagarjuna Sagar Dam. With the construction of the dam, the archaeological relics at Nagarjunakonda were submerged, and had to be excavated and transferred to higher land, which has become an island.
The site was once the location of a large Buddhist monastic university complex, attracting students from as far asChina,Gandhara,Bengal andSri Lanka.[citation needed] There are ruins of severalMahayana Buddhist andHindu shrines.[4] It is 160 km west of another important historic site, theAmaravati Stupa. The sculptures found at Nagarjunakonda are now mostly removed to various museums in India and abroad. They represent the second most important group in the distinctive "Amaravati style", sometimes called "Later Andhra".[5] There is also a palace area, with secular reliefs, that are very rare from such an early date, and show Roman influence.[6]
The modern name is afterNagarjuna, a southern Indian master ofMahayana Buddhism who lived in the 2nd century, who was once believed, probably wrongly, to have been responsible for the development of the site. The original name, used when the site was most active, was "Vijayapuri".
This Nāgārjunakoṇḍa (sometimes Nāgārjunikoṇḍa) site in Andhra Pradesh is not to be confused with the Nāgārjuna (or Nāgārjuni) caves near theBarabar Caves in Bihar.
Coins issued by the laterSatavahana kings (includingGautamiputra Satakarni,Pulumavi, andYajna Satakarni) have been discovered at Nagarjunakonda.[7] An inscription of Gautamiputra Vijaya Satakarni, dated to his 6th regnal year, has also been discovered at the site, and proves that Buddhism had spread in the region by this time.[8]
The site rose to prominence after the decline of the Satavahanas, in the first quarter of the 3rd century, when theIkshvaku king Vashishthiputra Chamamula established his capital Vijayapuri here. The coins and inscriptions discovered at Nagarjunakonda name four kings of the Ikshavaku dynasty: Vashishthi-putra Chamtamula, Mathari-putra Vira-purusha-datta, Vashishthi-putra Ehuvala Chamtamula, and Vashishthi-putra Rudra-purusha-datta. An inscription dated to the 30th regnal year of theAbhira kingVashishthi-putra Vasusena has also been discovered at the ruined Ashtab-huja-svamin temple.[8] This has led to speculation that the Abhiras, who ruled the region aroundNashik, invaded and occupied the Ikshavaku kingdom. However, this cannot be said with certainty.[9]
The Ikshavaku kings constructed several temples dedicated to the deities such as Sarva-deva, Pushpabhadra,Karttikeya, andShiva. Their queens, as well as Buddhistupasikas such as Bodhishri and Chandrashri, constructed several Buddhist monuments at the site.[10] It is believed that Sadvaha authorised the first monastic construction at Nagarjunakonda. During the early centuries, the site housed more than 30 Buddhistviharas; excavations have yielded art works and inscriptions of great significance for the scholarly study of the history of this early period.[11]
The last extant Ikshavaku inscription is dated to the 11th year (c. 309 CE) of Rudra-purusha: the subsequent fate of the dynasty is not known, but it is possible that thePallavas conquered their territory by the 4th century.[12] The site declined after the fall of the Ikshavaku power. Some brick shrines were constructed in the Krishna River valley between 7th and 12th centuries, when the region was controlled by theChalukyas of Vengi. Later, the site formed the part of theKakatiya kingdom and theDelhi Sultanate. During the 15th and the 16th centuries, Nagarjunakonda once again became an important site. The contemporary texts and inscriptions allude to a hill fortress at Nagarjunakonda, which was probably built by theReddi rulers as a frontier fortress protecting their main fort ofKondaveedu. It later appears to have come under the control of theGajapatis: a 1491 CE inscription dated to the reign of the Gajapati kingPurushottama indicates that the Nagarjunakonda fortress was controlled by his subordinate Sriratharaja Shingarayya Mahapatra. In 1515, theVijayanagara kingKrishnadevaraya stormed the fortress during his invasion of the Gajapati kingdom.[13]
The region was later ruled by theQutb Shahi dynasty and theMughals. It was subsequently granted as anagrahara to the pontiff of thePushpagiri Math.[8]
In 1926, a local schoolteacher, Suraparaju Venkataramaih, saw an ancient pillar at the site, and reported his discovery to theMadras Presidency government. Subsequently, Shri Sarasvati, theTelugu language Assistant to the Archaeological Superintendent for Epigraphy of Madras, visited the site, and it was recognized as a potential archaeological site.[14]
The first discoveries were made in 1926 by French archaeologistGabriel Jouveau-Dubreuil (1885–1945).[15] Systematic digging was organized by English archaeologists underA. H. Longhurst during 1927–1931. The team excavated the ruins of several Buddhist stupas and chaityas, as well as other monuments and sculptures.[15][14]
In 1938, T N Ramachandran led another excavation at the site, resulting in the discovery of some more monuments. In 1954, when the construction of the proposedNagarjuna Sagar Dam threatened the site with submergence, a large-scale excavation led by R Subrahmanyam was started to salvage the archaeological material. The excavation, conducted during 1954-1960, resulted in the discovery of a number of relics, dating from theEarly Stone Age to the 16th century. Later, around 14 large replicas of the excavated ruins and a museum were established on the Nagarjunakonda hill. Some of the sculptures excavated at Nagarjunakonda are now at other museums in Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, Paris and New York.[14]
An archaeological catastrophe struck in 1960, when an irrigation dam was constructed across the nearbyKrishna River, submerging the original site under the waters of a reservoir. In advance of the flooding, several monuments were dug up and relocated to the top of Nagarjuna's Hill, where a museum was built in 1966 Other monuments were relocated to the mainland, east of the flooded area. Dedicated archaeologists managed to recover almost all of the relics.
Archaeological inscriptions at the site show that theAndhra Ikshvaku kings Virapurusadatta, Ehuvula and family members patronized Buddhism. The inscriptions also show state-sponsorship of construction of temples and monasteries, through the funding of the Ikshvaku queens. Camtisiri in particular, is recorded as having funded the building of the main stupa for ten consecutive years. The support also spread beyond the noble classes, many non-royal names being inscribed in the relics. At its peak, there were more than thirty monasteries and it was the largest Buddhist centre inSouth India. Inscriptions showed that there were monasteries belonging to theBahuśrutīya andAparamahavinaseliya sub-schools of theMahāsāṃghika, theMahisasaka, and theMahaviharavasin, fromSri Lanka. The architecture of the area reflects that of these traditions. There were other monasteries for Buddhist scholars originating from theTamil kingdoms,Orissa,Kalinga,Gandhara,Bengal,Ceylon (the Culadhammagiri) andChina. There is also a footprint at the site of the Mahaviharavasin monastery, which is believed to be a reproduction of that ofGautama Buddha.
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The great stupa at Nagarjunakonda belongs to the class of uncased stupas, its brickwork being plastered over and the stupa decorated by a large garland-ornament.[2] The original stupa was renovated by the Ikshvaku princess Chamtisiri in the 3rd century, when ayaka-pillars of stone were erected. The outer railing, if any, was of wood, its uprights erected over a brick plinth. The stupa, 32.3 m in diameter, rose to a height of 18 m with a 4 m wide circumambulatory. The medhi stood 1.5 m and the ayaka-platforms were rectangular offsets measuring 6.7 by 1.5 m.[18]
The style of thereliefs recovered is "all but indistinguishable" from those of the final phase of theAmaravati Stupa not very far away, from the second quarter of the third century, slightly earlier than Nagarjunakonda. Though "lively and interesting", they show "a great decline since the mature phase at Amaravarti", with less complex groupings, various mannerisms in the figures, and a flatness to the surfaces.[19]
Most of the Hindu ruins at Nagarjunakonda can be identified asShaivite, wherever an identification is possible. One of the temples has an inscription naming the god as "Mahadeva Pushpabhadraswami" (Shiva). Stone images ofKartikeya (Murugan) were found at two other shrines. An inscription found at another excavated shrine refers to yet another Shiva shrine. At least one temple, attested by a 278 CE inscription, can be identified asVaishnavite, based on the image of an eight-armed god. A large sculpture ofDevi has also been discovered at the site.[4]
Various remains suggesting Greco-Roman influence can be found at Nagajurnakonda.[16] Roman coins were found, in particular RomanAurei, one ofTiberius (16-37 CE), and the other ofFaustina the Elder (141 CE), as well as a coin ofAntoninus Pius.[20][16] These finds seem to attest totrade relations with the Roman world.[21] A relief representingDionysus was also found in the Nagarjunakonda Palace site. He has a light beard, is semi-nude and carries a drinking horn, and there is a barrel of wine next to him.[16]
Indo-Scythians also appear, with reliefs of Scythian soldiers wearing caps and coats.[22][23] According to an inscription in Nagarjunakonda, a garrison of Scythian guards employed by theIksvakus Kings may also have been stationed there.[25]
The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are a series of epigraphical inscriptions found in the area of Nagarjunakonda. The inscriptions are associated with the blossoming of Buddhist structures and the rule of theIkshvaku, in the period covering approximately 210-325 CE.[26]
The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions tends to stress the cosmopolitan nature of Buddhist activities there, explained that a variety of Buddhist monks came from various lands.[26] An inscription in a monastery (Site No.38) describes its residents asacaryas andtheriyas of theVibhajyavada school, "who had gladdened the heart of the people ofKasmira,Gamdhara,Yavana,Vanavasa[27] andTambapamnidipa".[26] The inscriptions suggest the involvement of these various people with Buddhism.[28]
The inscriptions are either inPrakrit, inSanskrit, or a mix of both, and are all in theBrahmi script.[26] The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are the earliest substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd-century to early 4th-century CE. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and to theShaivism tradition of Hinduism, and parts of them reflect both standard Sanskrit and hybridized Sanskrit.[29]
The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can probably be attributed to the influence of theWestern Satraps who promoted the usage of Sanskrit in epigraphy, and who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers: according to Salomon "a Nagarjunakonda memorial pillar inscription of the time of KingRudrapurusadatta attests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and theIksvaku rulers of Nagarjunakonda".[30][31] According to one of the inscriptions, Iksvaku king Virapurushadatta (250-275 CE) had multiple wives,[32] including Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of the ruler ofUjjain (Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika), possibly theIndo-ScythianWestern Kshatrapa kingRudrasena II.[33][34][35]
The modern name of the site originates from its presumptive association with the Buddhist scholarNagarjuna (konda is theTelugu word for "hill"). However, the archaeological finds at the site do not prove that it was associated with Nagarjuna. The 3rd–4th-century inscriptions discovered there make it clear that it was known as "Vijayapuri" in the ancient period: the name "Nagarjunakonda" dates from the medieval period. TheIkshavaku inscriptions invariably associate their capital Vijayapuri with the Sriparvata hill, mentioning it asSiriparvate Vijayapure.[36]
Fa-Hien, in his travelogueA Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, mentions a five storey monastery on top of the hill, dedicated toKassapa Buddha. He describes each storey as being in the shape of a different animal, with the uppermost being in the shape of a pigeon.[37] Fa-Hien refers to the monastery asPo-lo-yue; which has been interpreted to meanPārāvata, meaning "pigeon" (hence the name "Pigeon Monastery"), orParvata, meaning "hill" inSanskrit (although the latter is considered to be the correct name).[38]
WhenHiuen-Tsang travelled toAndhradesa c. 640 CE,[39] he also visited this place. He has referred toParvata asPo-lo-mo-lo-ki-li[40] or "Mountain of the Black Bee" in his bookGreat Tang Records on the Western Regions; as it was then known as Bhramaragiri[41] (bhramara means "bee",giri means "hill" or "mountain" in Sanskrit), because it had a shrine ofBharmaramba (a form of goddessDurga).[42] However, many scholars believe thatPo-lo-mo-lo-ki-li was actually Parimalagiri alias Gandhagiri (Gandhamardan hills) in Odisha.[43]
The Nagarjunasagar Dam is the tallest masonry dam in the world, constructed between 1955 and 1967. The excavated remains of the Buddhist civilisation were reconstructed and preserved at a museum on the island situated in the midst of the man-made Nagarjunasagar Lake The site has a 14th-century fort, medieval temples and a museum constructed like a Buddhistvihara. The museum houses a collection of relics of Buddhist culture and art These include a small tooth and an ear-ring believed to be that ofGautama Buddha. The main stupa of Nagarjunakonda named Mahachaitya is believed to contain the sacred relics of the Buddha. A partly ruined monolithic statue of the Buddha is the main attraction at the museum. It also houses historic finds in the form of tools from Paleolithic and Neolithic times, as well as friezes, coins and jewellery.[44][45]
Located in theGuntur district, Nagarjunakonda Island is not directly accessible on the State Highway.The nearest train station is atMacherla, 29 km away. The island is mainly connected by aferry to the mainland.The area is also known for panoramic views of the valley from a viewing area near the dam, and is also the site of theEthipothala Falls, a natural waterfall that cascades down 22 m into a blue lagoon that is also a breeding centre forcrocodiles. The nearbySrisailam wildlife sanctuary and theNagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve are refuge for diverse reptiles, birds and animals. Srisailam, which sits on the shore of Krishna in theNallamala Hills is a site of immense historical and religious significance, including aShiva temple that is one of the 12 sacredJyotirlingas.
