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Themythologies in present-dayItaly encompass themythology of theRomans,Etruscans, and other peoples living inItaly, those ancient stories aboutdivine orheroic beings that these particular cultures believed to be true and that often usesupernatural events or characters to explain the nature of the universe and humanity.
Roman mythology is the body ofmyths ofancient Rome as represented in theliterature andvisual arts of the Romans. One of a wide variety of genres ofRoman folklore,Roman mythology may also refer to the modern study of these representations, and to the subject matter as represented in the literature and art of other cultures in any period. Roman mythology draws from the mythology of theItalic peoples and ultimately fromProto-Indo-European mythology.
Roman mythology also draws directly onGreek mythology, potentially as early as Rome'sprotohistory, but primarily during theHellenistic period of Greek influence and through theRoman conquest of Greece, via the artistic imitation ofGreek literary models by Roman authors.[1] The Romansidentified theirown gods with those of theancient Greeks—who were closely historically related in some cases, such asZeus andJupiter—and reinterpreted myths aboutGreek deities under the names of their Roman counterparts. Greek and Roman mythologies are therefore often classified together in the modern era asGreco-Roman mythology.
Latin literature was widely known in Europe throughout theMiddle Ages and into theRenaissance. The interpretations of Greek myths by the Romans often had a greater influence on narrative and pictorial representations of "Greco-Roman mythology" than Greek sources. In particular, the versions of Greek myths inOvid'sMetamorphoses, written during the reign ofAugustus, came to be regarded ascanonical.
Becauseritual played the central role in Roman religion that myth did for the Greeks, it is sometimes doubted that the Romans had much of a native mythology. This perception is a product ofRomanticism and theclassical scholarship of the 19th century, which valued Greek civilization as more "authentically creative."[2] From theRenaissance to the 18th century, however, Roman myths were an inspiration particularly forEuropean painting.[3] The Roman tradition is rich in historical myths, orlegends, concerning the foundation and rise of the city. These narratives focus on human actors, with only occasional intervention from deities but a pervasive sense of divinely ordered destiny. In Rome's earliest period, history and myth have a mutual and complementary relationship.[4] AsT. P. Wiseman notes:
The Roman stories stillmatter, as they mattered toDante in 1300 andShakespeare in 1600 and thefounding fathers of the United States in 1776. What does it take to be afree citizen? Can asuperpower still be arepublic? How does well-meaningauthority turn into murderoustyranny?[3]
Major sources for Roman myth include theAeneid ofVirgil and the first few books ofLivy's history as well as Dionysius'sRoman Antiquities. Other important sources are theFasti ofOvid, a six-book poem structured by theRoman religious calendar, and the fourth book of elegies byPropertius. Scenes from Roman myth also appear in Romanwall painting,coins, andsculpture, particularlyreliefs.
TheAeneid and Livy's early history are the best extant sources forRome's founding myths. Material from Greek heroic legend was grafted onto this native stock at an early date. The Trojan princeAeneas was cast as husband ofLavinia, daughter of KingLatinus, patronymical ancestor of theLatini, and therefore through aconvoluted revisionist genealogy as forebear ofRomulus and Remus. By extension, the Trojans were adopted as the mythical ancestors of the Roman people.[5]
The characteristic myths of Rome are often political or moral, that is, they deal with the development ofRoman government in accordance with divine law, as expressed byRoman religion, and with demonstrations of the individual's adherence to moral expectations(mos maiorum) or failures to do so.
Etruscan religion comprises a set of stories, beliefs, andreligious practices of theEtruscan civilization, heavily influenced by the mythology ofancient Greece, and sharing similarities with concurrentRoman mythology andreligion. As the Etruscan civilization was gradually assimilated into theRoman Republic from the 4th century BC, the Etruscanreligion andmythology were partially incorporated intoancient Roman culture, following the Roman tendency to absorb some of the local gods and customs of conquered lands. The first attestations of an Etruscan religion can be traced back to theVillanovan culture.[11]
The mythology is evidenced by a number of sources in different media, for example representations on large numbers of pottery, inscriptions and engraved scenes on the Praenestinecistae (ornate boxes; see underEtruscan language) and onspecula (ornate hand mirrors). Currently some two dozen fascicles of theCorpus Speculorum Etruscorum have been published. Specifically Etruscan mythological and cult figures appear in theLexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae.[12] Etruscan inscriptions have recently been given a more authoritative presentation byHelmut Rix,Etruskische Texte.[13]
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TheDii Consentes, also known asDei Consentes,Dii Complices orThe Harmonious Gods, is an ancient list of twelve major deities,six gods and six goddesses, in thepantheon of Ancient Rome. Their gilt statues stood in theRoman Forum, and later apparently in thePorticus Deorum Consentium.
The gods were listed by the poetEnnius:[14]
Livy[15] arranges them in six male-female pairs: Jupiter-Juno, Neptune-Minerva, Mars-Venus, Apollo-Diana, Vulcan-Vesta and Mercury-Ceres. Three of theDii Consentes formed theCapitoline Triad: Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.
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Other Gods and Goddesses of Italian Mythology include:
Theevil eye, inItalianmalocchio, is not just a part of Italian folklore but is also present in many different cultures. The evil eye is a supernatural belief in a curse brought about by a malevolent glare, usually inspired byenvy.[16] The belief in the evil eye among humans has existed sinceprehistory,[16] andamulets to protect against it have been found from dating to about 5,000 years ago.[16] It is estimated that around 40% of the world's population believes in the evil eye.[17]
It is found in many cultures in theMediterranean region, theBalkans, theMiddle East andCentral Asia, with such cultures often believing that receiving the evil eye will cause misfortune or injury,[18] while others believe it to be a kind ofsupernatural force that casts or reflects a malevolent gaze back upon those who wish harm upon others (especially innocents). The idea appears multiple times also inJewish rabbinic literature.
Different cultures have pursued measures to protect against the evil eye.[19] Some of the most famous talismans against the evil eye include thenazar amulet, itself a representation of an eye, and thehamsa, a hand-shaped amulet. Older iterations of the symbol were often made of ceramic or clay; however, following the production ofglass beads in the Mediterranean region in approximately 1500 BC, evil eye beads were popularised with the Phoenicians, Persians, Greeks, Romans and Ottomans.[20] Ancient Romans used representations ofphallus, such as thefascinus, to protect against the evil eye, while in modern-daySouthernItaly a variety of amulets and gestures are used for protection, including thecornicello, thecimaruta, and thesign of the horns.
Thecornicello, "little horn", also called in Italian thecornetto ("little horn", pluralcornetti), is a long, gently twisted horn-shaped amulet. Cornicelli are usually carved out of red coral or made from gold or silver. The type of horn they are intended to copy is not a curled-over sheep horn or goat horn but rather like the twisted horn of an Africaneland or a chili pepper.[21] A tooth or tuft of fur of theItalian wolf was worn as atalisman against the evil eye.[22]
One idea that theribald suggestions made by sexualsymbols distract thewitch from the mental effort needed to successfully bestow the curse. Another is that since the effect of the eye was to dry up liquids, the drying of the phallus (resulting in male impotence) would be averted by seeking refuge in the moist female genitals. Among the ancient Romans and their cultural descendants in the Mediterranean nations, those who were not fortified with phallic charms had to make use of sexualgestures to avoid the eye. Such gestures include scratching one's testicles (for men), as well as themano cornuta gesture andthe fig sign; a fist with the thumb pressed between the index and middle fingers, representing the phallus within the vagina. In addition to the phallic talismans,statues of hands in these gestures, or covered with magical symbols, were carried by the Romans as talismans.
The wielder of the evil eye, thejettatore, is described as having a striking facial appearance, high arching brows with a stark stare that leaps from his eyes. He often has a reputation for clandestine involvement with dark powers and is the object of gossip about dealings in magic and other forbidden practices. Successful men having tremendous personal magnetism quickly gain notoriety as jettatori.Pope Pius IX was dreaded for his evil eye, and a whole cycle of stories about the disasters that happened in his wake were current in Rome during the latter decades of the 19th century. Public figures of every type, from poets to gangsters, have had their specialized abilities attributed to the power of their eyes.[23]
Nicolaus Cornelius is a little-known mythological figure from the central areas of the Veneto region of Italy. More specifically, it is believed that he lived in the areas of today's San Martino di Lupari. This figure is known for a diversity of very evident physical characteristics. This being has the appearance of a human, so much so that it is often attributed the quality of human. Although it has these characteristics, presumably this is just an imaginary creation of some famous entertainers in the time when the republic of Venice still existed. The creature, as it was described, was easily noticeable thanks to its marked height compared to the hominids of the time. Two other key traits were his disproportionate obesity, he was estimated to weigh 500 kilos and he had a very serious form of bad breath, called Alitorum fecantis. Although he was said to be an extremely hostile creature, his poor eyesight did not allow him to act with awareness. Unfortunately there are no mentions of this creature due to the loss of many fairy tales about it.
