Kingdom of Mysore | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1399–1950 | |||||||||
 Coat of arms | |||||||||
 The kingdom of Mysore at its greatest extent in 1784 underTipu Sultan | |||||||||
| Status |
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| Capital | Mysore,Srirangapatna,Bangalore | ||||||||
| Largest city | Bangalore | ||||||||
| Official languages |
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| Religion | |||||||||
| Demonym | Mysorean | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Maharaja | |||||||||
• 1399–1423 (first) | Yaduraya Wodeyar | ||||||||
• 1940–1950 (last) | Jayachamaraja Wodeyar | ||||||||
• 1761–1782 | Hyder Ali | ||||||||
• 1782–1799 | Tipu Sultan | ||||||||
| Dewan | |||||||||
• 1782–1811 (first) | Purnaiah | ||||||||
• 1946–1949 (last) | Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar | ||||||||
• 1926–1941 | Mirza Ismail | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Established | 1399 | ||||||||
• Earliest records | 1551 | ||||||||
| 1767–1799 | |||||||||
| 1759–1787 | |||||||||
| 1950 | |||||||||
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| Today part of | India | ||||||||
TheKingdom of Mysore was a geopolitical realm insouthern India founded in around 1399[1] in the vicinity of the modern-day city ofMysuru and prevailed until 1950. The territorial boundaries and the form of government transmuted substantially throughout the kingdom's lifetime. While originally a feudal vassal under theVijayanagara Empire, it became aprincely state inBritish Raj from 1799 to 1947, marked in-between by major political changes.
The kingdom, which was founded and ruled for the most part by theWadiyars, initially served as a feudal vassal under theVijayanagara Empire.[2] With the gradual decline of the Empire, the 16th-centuryTimmaraja Wodeyar II declared independence from it. The 17th century saw a steady expansion of its territory and, during the rules ofNarasaraja Wodeyar I andDevaraja Wodeyar II, the kingdom annexed large expanses of what is now southern Karnataka and parts ofTamil Nadu, becoming a formidable power in the Deccan.
During a briefMuslim rule from 1761 to 1799, the kingdom became asultanate underHyder Ali andTipu, often referring to it asSultanat-e-Khudadad (transl. God gifted empire).[3][4] During this time, it came into conflict with theMaratha Confederacy, theNizam of Hyderabad, theKingdom of Travancore, and theBritish, culminating in fourAnglo-Mysore Wars. Mysore's success in theFirst Anglo-Mysore war and a stalemate in theSecond were followed by defeats in theThird and theFourth. Following Tipu's death in the Fourth War during theSiege of Seringapatam, large parts of his kingdom were annexed by the British, which signalled the end of a period of Mysorean hegemony over South India. Power returned absolutely to the Wadiyars whenKrishnaraja Wodeyar III became king.
In 1831, the British took direct control of the kingdom and acommission administered it until 1881.[5] Through an instrument of rendition, power was once again transferred to the Wadiyars in 1881, whenChamaraja Wadiyar X was made king. In 1913, in lieu of the instrument, a propersubsidiary alliance was struck with the kingdom during MaharajaKrishnaraja Wadiyar IV.
UponIndia's independence from the Crown rule in 1947, the Kingdom of Mysore acceded to theUnion of India. Upon accession, it becameMysore State, later uniting with otherKannada speaking regions to form the present-dayKarnataka state. Soon after Independence, MaharajaJayachamaraja Wadiyar was madeRajapramukh until 1956, when he became the firstgovernor of the enlarged state.
Even as a princely state, Mysore came to be counted among the more developed and urbanised regions of South Asia. The period since the penultimate restoration (1799–1947) also saw Mysore emerge as one of the important centres ofart and culture in India. Themaharajas of Mysore were not only accomplished exponents of the fine arts and men of letters, they were enthusiastic patrons as well. Their legacies continue to influence music and the arts even today, as well asrocket science with the use ofMysorean rockets.[6]
Sources for the history of the kingdom include numerous extantlithic and copper plate inscriptions, records from the Mysore palace and contemporary literary sources in Kannada,Persian and other languages.[7][8][9] According to traditional accounts, the kingdom originated as a small state based in the modern city of Mysore and was founded by two brothers, Yaduraya (also known as Vijaya) and Krishnaraya. Their origins are mired in legend and are still a matter of debate; while some historians posit a northern origin atDwarka,[10][11] others locate it in Karnataka.[12][13][14] Yaduraya is said to have married Chikkadevarasi, the local princess and assumed the feudal title "Wodeyar" (Kannada:ಒಡೆಯರ್,romanized: Oḍeyar,lit. 'lord'), which the ensuing dynasty retained.[15] The first unambiguous mention of the Wodeyar family is in 16th centuryKannada literature from the reign of the Vijayanagara kingAchyuta Deva Raya (1529–1542); the earliest available inscription, issued by the Wodeyars themselves, dates to the rule of the petty chief Timmaraja II in 1551.[16]
The kings who followed ruled as vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire until the decline of the latter in 1565. By this time, the kingdom had expanded to thirty-three villages protected by a force of 300 soldiers.[17] King Timmaraja II conquered some surrounding chiefdoms,[18] and KingBola Chamaraja IV (lit, "Bald"), the first ruler of any political significance among them, withheld tribute to the nominal Vijayanagara monarch AraviduRamaraya.[19] After the death of Aravidu Ramaraya, the Wodeyars began to assert themselves further and King Raja Wodeyar I wrested control ofSrirangapatna from the Vijayanagara governor (Mahamandaleshvara) AraviduTirumalla – a development which elicited, if onlyex post facto, the tacit approval ofVenkatapati Raya, the incumbent king of the diminished Vijayanagar Empire ruling fromChandragiri.[20] Raja Wodeyar I's reign also saw territorial expansion with the annexation ofChannapatna to the north fromJaggadeva Raya[20][21] – a development which made Mysore a regional political factor to reckon with.[22][23]
Consequently, by 1612–13, the Wodeyars exercised a great deal of autonomy and even though they acknowledged the nominal overlordship of theAravidu dynasty, tributes and transfers of revenue to Chandragiri stopped. This was in marked contrast to other major chiefs, theNayaks of Tamil country who continued to pay off Chandragiri emperors well into the 1630s.[20]Chamaraja VI andKanthirava Narasaraja I attempted to expand further northward but were thwarted by theBijapur Sultanate and its Maratha subordinates, though the Bijapur armies under Ranadullah Khan were effectively repelled in their 1638 siege of Srirangapatna.[23][24] Expansionist ambitions then turned southward into Tamil country where Narasaraja Wodeyar acquiredSatyamangalam (in modern northernErode district) while his successorDodda Devaraja Wodeyar expanded further to capture western Tamil regions of Erode andDharmapuri, after successfully repulsing thechiefs ofMadurai. The invasion of theKeladi Nayakas ofMalnad was also dealt with successfully. This period was followed by one of the complex geo-political changes when in the 1670s, the Marathas and the Mughals pressed into the Deccan.[23][24]
Chikka Devaraja (r. 1672–1704), the most notable of Mysore's early kings, who ruled during much of this period, managed to not only survive the exigencies but further expand territory. He achieved this by forging strategic alliances with the Marathas and theMughals.[25][26] The kingdom soon grew to includeSalem andBangalore to the east,Hassan to the west,Chikkamagaluru andTumkur to the north and the rest ofCoimbatore to the south.[27] Despite this expansion, the kingdom, which now accounted for a fair share of land in the southern Indian heartland, extending from theWestern Ghats to the western boundaries of theCoromandel plain, remained landlocked without direct coastal access. Chikka Devaraja's attempts to remedy this brought Mysore into conflict with theNayaka chiefs ofIkkeri and the kings (Rajas) ofKodagu (modern Coorg); who between them controlled theKanara coast (coastal areas of modern Karnataka) and the intervening hill region respectively.[28] The conflict brought mixed results with Mysore annexingPeriyapatna but suffering a reversal at Palupare.[29]
Nevertheless, from around 1704, when the kingdom passed on to the "Mute king" (Mukarasu)Kanthirava Narasaraja II, the survival and expansion of the kingdom was achieved by playing a delicate game of alliance, negotiation, subordination on occasion, and annexation of territory in all directions. According to historiansSanjay Subrahmanyam andSethu Madhava Rao, Mysore was now formally a tributary of the Mughal Empire. Mughul records claim a regular tribute (peshkash) was paid by Mysore. However, historianSuryanath U. Kamath feels the Mughals may have considered Mysore an ally, a situation brought about byMughal–Maratha competition for supremacy in southern India.[30] By the 1720s, with the Mughal empire in decline, further complications arose with the Mughal residents at bothArcot andSira claiming tribute.[25] The years that followed sawKrishnaraja Wodeyar I tread cautiously on the matter while keeping the Kodagu chiefs and the Marathas at bay. He was followed byChamaraja Wodeyar VII during whose reign power fell into the hands of prime minister (Dalwai orDalavoy)Nanjarajiah (or Nanjaraja) and chief minister (Sarvadhikari) Devarajiah (or Devaraja), the influential brothers fromKalale town nearNanjangud who would rule for the next three decades with the Wodeyars relegated to being the titular heads.[31][32] The latter part of the rule ofKrishnaraja II saw theDeccan Sultanates being eclipsed by the Mughals and in the confusion that ensued,Hyder Ali, a captain in the army, rose to prominence.[23] His victory against the Marathas at Bangalore in 1758, resulting in the annexation of their territory, made him an iconic figure. In honour of his achievements, the king gave him the title "Nawab Haider Ali Khan Bahadur".[32]
Hyder Ali has earned an important place in thehistory of Karnataka for his fighting skills and administrative acumen.[33][34] The rise of Hyder came at a time of important political developments in the sub-continent. While the European powers were busy transforming themselves from trading companies to political powers, theNizam as theSubahdar of the Mughals pursued his ambitions in the Deccan, and the Marathas, following theirdefeat atPanipat, sought safe havens in the south. The period also saw theFrench vie with the British for control of theCarnatic—a contest in which the British would eventually prevail as British commanderSir Eyre Coote decisively defeated the French under theComte de Lally at theBattle of Wandiwash in 1760, a watershed in Indian history as it cemented British supremacy in South Asia.[35] Though the Wodeyars remained the nominal heads of Mysore during this period, real power lay in the hands of Hyder Ali and his sonTipu.[36]
By 1761, Maratha power had diminished and by 1763, Hyder Ali had captured the Keladi kingdom, defeated the rulers ofBilgi,Bednur andGutti, invaded theMalabar Coast in the south and conquered theZamorin's capitalCalicut with ease in 1766 and extended the Mysore kingdom up toDharwad andBellary in the north.[37][38] Mysore was now a major political power in the subcontinent and Haider's meteoric rise from relative obscurity and his defiance formed one of the last remaining challenges to complete British hegemony over the Indian subcontinent—a challenge which would take them more than three decades to overcome.[39]
In a bid to stem Hyder's rise, the British allied with the Marathas and the Nizam ofGolconda, culminating in theFirst Anglo-Mysore War in 1767. Despite numerical superiority, Hyder Ali suffered defeats at the battles ofChengham andTiruvannamalai. The British ignored his overtures for peace until Hyder Ali had strategically moved his armies to within five miles of Madras (modernChennai) and was able to successfullysue for peace.[35][38][40] Three wars were fought from 1764 and 1772 between theMaratha armies ofPeshwa Madhavrao I against Hyder, in which Hyder was severely defeated and had to pay 36 lacs of tribute as war expenses along with an annual tribute of 14 lacs every year to the peshwa.[41] In these wars Hyder had expected British support as per the 1769 treaty but the British stayed out of the conflict. British neutrality and Hyder's subsequent defeat reinforced his deep distrust of the British—a sentiment that would be shared by his son and one that would inform Anglo-Mysore rivalries of the next three decades. In 1777,Haider Ali recovered the previously lost territories of Coorg and parts of what would later become Malabar District from the Marathas.[42]Haider Ali's army advanced towards the Marathas and fought them at theBattle of Saunshi and came out victorious during the same year.[42]
By 1779, Hyder Ali had captured parts of modern Tamil Nadu andKerala in the south, extending the kingdom's area to about 80,000 mi2 (205,000 km2).[38] In 1780, he befriended the French and made peace with the Marathas and the Nizam.[43] However, Hyder Ali was betrayed by the Marathas and the Nizam, who made treaties with the British as well. In July 1779, Hyder Ali headed an army of 80,000, mostly cavalry, descending through the passes of the Ghats amid burning villages, before laying siege to British forts in northern Arcot starting theSecond Anglo-Mysore War. Hyder Ali had some initial successes against the British notably atPollilur, where Mysorean troops made effective use of rocket artillery, and Arcot, until the arrival of Sir Eyre Coote, when the fortunes of the British began to change.[44] On 1 June 1781 Coote struck the first heavy blow against Hyder Ali in the decisiveBattle of Porto Novo. The battle was won by Coote against odds of five to one and is regarded as one of the greatest feats of the British in India. It was followed up by another hard-foughtbattle atPollilur (the scene of an earlier triumph of Hyder Ali over a British force) on 27 August, in which the British won another success, and by the rout of the Mysore troops atSholinghur a month later. Hyder Ali died on 7 December 1782, even as fighting continued with the British. He was succeeded by his sonTipu Sultan who continued hostilities against the British by recapturing Baidanur and Mangalore.[38][45]
By 1783 neither the British nor Mysore were able to obtain a clear overall victory. The French withdrew their support of Mysore following thepeace settlement in Europe.[46] Undaunted, Tipu, popularly known as the "Tiger of Mysore", continued the war against the British but lost some regions in modern coastal Karnataka to them. TheMaratha–Mysore War occurred between 1785 and 1787 and consisted of a series of conflicts between the Sultanate of Mysore and the Maratha Empire.[47] Following Tipu Sultan's victory against the Marathas at thesiege of Bahadur Benda, a peace agreement was signed between the two kingdoms with mutual gains and losses.[48][49] Similarly, thetreaty of Mangalore was signed in 1784 bringing hostilities with the British to a temporary and uneasy halt and restoring the others' lands to thestatus quo ante bellum.[50][51] The treaty is an important document in the history of India because it was the last occasion when an Indian power dictated terms to the British, who were made to play the role of humble supplicants for peace. A start of fresh hostilities between the British and French in Europe would have been sufficient reason for Tipu to abrogate his treaty and further his ambition of striking at the British.[52] His attempts to lure the Nizam, the Marathas, the French and theSultan of Turkey failed to bring direct military aid.[52]
Tipu'ssuccessful attacks in 1790 on theKingdom of Travancore, a later British ally, ended in defeat for him, and it resulted in greater hostilities with the British which culminated in theThird Anglo-Mysore War.[53] In the beginning, the British made gains, taking theCoimbatore district, but Tipu's counterattack reversed many of these gains. By 1792, with aid from the Marathas who attacked from the north-west and the Nizam who moved in from the north-east, the British underLord Cornwallis successfullybesieged Srirangapatna, resulting in Tipu's defeat and theTreaty of Srirangapatna. Half of Mysore was distributed among the allies, and two of his sons were held to ransom.[50] A humiliated but indomitable Tipu went about rebuilding his economic and military power. He attempted to covertly win over support fromRevolutionary France, theAmir of Afghanistan, theOttoman Empire and Arabia. However, these attempts to involve the French soon became known to the British, who were at the time fighting the French inEgypt and were backed by the Marathas and the Nizam. In 1799, Tipu dieddefending Srirangapatna in theFourth Anglo-Mysore War, heralding the end of the kingdom's independence.[54] Modern Indian historians consider Tipu Sultan an inveterate enemy of the British, an able administrator and an innovator.[55]
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Following Tipu's fall, a part of the Kingdom of Mysore was annexed and divided between the Madras Presidency and theNizam. The remaining territory was transformed into a Princely State; the five-year-old scion of the Wodeyar family,Krishnaraja III, was installed on the throne withPurnaiah continuing asDewan, who had earlier served under Tipu, handling the reins as regent andBarry Close was appointed theBritish Resident for Mysore. The British then took control of Mysore's foreign policy and also exacted an annual tribute and a subsidy for maintaining a standing British army at Mysore.[56][57][58] As dewan, Purnaiah distinguished himself with his progressive and innovative administration until he retired from service in 1811 (and died shortly thereafter) following the 16th birthday of the boy king.[59][60]
The years that followed witnessed cordial relations between Mysore and the British until things began to sour in the 1820s. Even though theGovernor of Madras,Thomas Munro, determined after a personal investigation in 1825 that there was no substance to the allegations of financial impropriety made byA. H. Cole, the incumbent Resident of Mysore, theNagar revolt (a civil insurrection) which broke out towards the end of the decade changed things considerably. In 1831, close on the heels of the insurrection and citing mal-administration, the British took direct control of the princely state, placing it under acommission rule.[61][62] For the next fifty years, Mysore passed under the rule of successive British Commissioners; SirMark Cubbon, renowned for his statesmanship, served from 1834 until 1861 and put into place an efficient and successful administrative system which left Mysore a well-developed state.[63]
In 1876–77, however, towards the end of the period of direct British rule, Mysore wasstruck by a devastating famine with estimated mortality figures ranging between 700,000 and 1,100,000, or nearly a fifth of the population.[64] Shortly thereafter, MaharajaChamaraja X, educated in the British system, took over the rule of Mysore in 1881, following the success of a lobby set up by the Wodeyar dynasty that was in favour ofrendition. Accordingly, a resident British officer was appointed at the Mysore court and a Dewan to handle the Maharaja's administration.[65] From then onwards, until Indian independence in 1947, Mysore remained a Princely State within theBritish Indian Empire, with the Wodeyars continuing their rule.[65]
After the demise of Maharaja Chamaraja X,Krishnaraja IV, still a boy of eleven, ascended the throne in 1895. His mother Maharani Kemparajammanniyavaru ruled as regent until Krishnaraja took over the reins on 8 February 1902.[66] Under his rule, with Sir M. Visvesvayara as his Dewan, the Maharaja set about transforming Mysore into a progressive and modern state, particularly in industry, education, agriculture and art. Such were the strides that Mysore made thatMahatma Gandhi called the Maharaja a "saintly king" (Rajarishi).[67]Paul Brunton, the British philosopher and orientalist,John Gunther, the American author, and British statesmanLord Samuel praised the ruler's efforts. Much of the pioneering work in educational infrastructure that took place during this period would serve Karnataka invaluably in the coming decades.[68] The Maharaja was an accomplished musician, and like his predecessors, avidly patronised the development of the fine arts.[69] He was followed by his nephewJayachamarajendra whose rule continued for some years after he signed theinstrument of accession and Mysore joined the Indian Union on 9 August 1947.[70][71] Jayachamarajendra continued to rule asRajapramukh of Mysore until 1956 when as a result of theStates Reorganisation Act, 1956, his position was converted into Governor ofMysore State. From 1963 until 1966, he was the first Governor ofMadras State.[72]
There are no records relating to the administration of the Mysore territory during theVijayanagara Empire's reign (1399–1565). Signs of a well-organised and independent administration appear from the time of Raja Wodeyar I who is believed to have been sympathetic towards peasants (raiyats) who were exempted from any increases in taxation during his time.[23] The first sign that the kingdom had established itself in the area was the issuing of gold coins (Kanthirayi phanam) resembling those of the erstwhile Vijayanagara Empire during Narasaraja Wodeyar's rule.[73]
The rule of Chikka Devaraja saw several reforms effected. Internal administration was remodelled to suit the kingdom's growing needs and became more efficient. A postal system came into being. Far-reaching financial reforms were also introduced. Several petty taxes were imposed in place of direct taxes, as a result of which the peasants were compelled to pay more by way of land tax.[74] The king is said to have taken a personal interest in the regular collection of revenues the treasury burgeoned to 90,000,000 Pagoda (a unit of currency) – earning him the epithet "Ninecrore Narayana" (Navakoti Narayana). In 1700, he sent an embassy toAurangazeb's court bestowed upon him the titleJug Deo Raja and awarded permission to sit on the ivory throne. Following this, he founded the district offices (Attara Kacheri), the central secretariat comprising eighteen departments, and his administration was modelled on Mughal lines.[75]
DuringHyder Ali's rule, the kingdom was divided into five provinces (Asofis) of unequal size, comprising 171taluks (Paraganas) in total.[76] WhenTipu Sultan became thede facto ruler, the kingdom, which encompassed 160,000 km2 (61,776 sq mi) (62,000 mi2), was divided into 37 provinces and a total of 124 taluks (Amil). Each province had a governor (Asof), and one deputy governor. Each taluk had a headman calledAmildar and a group of villages were in charge of aPatel.[57] The central administration comprised six departments headed by ministers, each aided by an advisory council of up to four members.[77]
When theprincely state came under direct British rule in 1831, early commissionersLushington,Briggs and Morrison were followed by Mark Cubbon, who took charge in 1834.[78] He madeBangalore the capital and divided the princely state into four divisions, each under a British superintendent. The state was further divided into 120 taluks with 85 taluk courts, with all lower level administration in theKannada language.[78] The office of the commissioner had eight departments; revenue, post, police, cavalry, public works, medical, animal husbandry, judiciary and education. The judiciary was hierarchical with the commissioners' court at the apex, followed by theHuzur Adalat, four superintending courts and eightSadar Munsiff courts at the lowest level.[79]Lewin Bowring became the chief commissioner in 1862 and held the position until 1870. During his tenure, the property "Registration Act", the "Indian Penal Code" and "Code of Criminal Procedure" came into effect and the judiciary was separated from the executive branch of the administration.[79] The state was divided into eightdistricts – Bangalore,Chitraldroog,Hassan,Kadur,Kolar,Mysore,Shimoga, andTumkur.[80]
After the rendition,C. V. Rungacharlu was made the Dewan. Under him, the first Representative Assembly of British India, with 144 members, was formed in 1881.[81] He was followed byK. Seshadri Iyer in 1883 during whose tenure gold mining at theKolar Gold Fields began, theShivanasamudrahydroelectric project was initiated in 1899 (the first such major attempt in India) and electricity and drinking water (the latter through pipes) was supplied to Bangalore.[82] Seshadri Iyer was followed byP. N. Krishnamurti, who created The Secretariat Manual to maintain records and the Co-operative Department in 1905,[82]V. P. Madhava Rao who focussed on the conservation of forests andT. Ananda Rao, who finalised theKannambadi Dam project.[83]
Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya, popularly known as the "Maker of Modern Mysore", holds a key place in the history of Karnataka.[84] An engineer by education, he became the Dewan in 1909.[83][85] Under his tenure, membership of theMysore Legislative Assembly was increased from 18 to 24, and it was given the power to discuss the state budget.[83] The Mysore Economic Conference was expanded into three committees; industry and commerce, education, and agriculture, with publications in English and Kannada.[86] Important projects commissioned during his time included the construction of theKannambadi Dam, the founding of theMysore Iron Works at Bhadravathi, founding of theMysore University in 1916, theUniversity Visvesvaraya College of Engineering in Bangalore, the establishment of the Mysore state railway department and numerous industries in Mysore. In 1955, he was awarded theBharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.[86][87]
SirMirza Ismail took office as Dewan in 1926 and built on the foundation laid by his predecessor. Amongst his contributions were the expansion of the Bhadravathi Iron Works, the founding of a cement and paper factory inBhadravathi and the launch ofHindustan Aeronautics Limited. A man with a penchant for gardens, he founded theBrindavan Gardens (Krishnaraja Sagar) and built theKaveri River high-level canal to irrigate 120,000 acres (490 km2) in modern Mandya district.[88]
In 1939Mandya District was carved out of Mysore District, bringing the number of districts in the state to nine.
The vast majority of the people lived in villages and agriculture was their main occupation. The economy of the kingdom was based on agriculture. Grains, pulses, vegetables and flowers were cultivated. Commercial crops included sugarcane and cotton. The agrarian population consisted of landlords (vokkaliga,zamindar,heggadde) who tilled the land by employing several landless labourers, usually paying them in grain. Minor cultivators were also willing to hire themselves out as labourers if the need arose.[89] It was due to the availability of these landless labourers that kings and landlords were able to execute major projects such as palaces, temples, mosques, anicuts (dams) and tanks.[90] Because land was abundant and the population relatively sparse, no rent was charged on land ownership. Instead, landowners paid tax for cultivation, which amounted to up to one-half of all harvested produce.[90]
Tipu Sultan is credited with founding state trading depots in various locations of his kingdom. In addition, he founded depots in foreign locations such asKarachi,Jeddah andMuscat, where Mysore products were sold.[91] During Tipu's rule French technology was used for the first time in carpentry andsmithing, Chinese technology was used for sugar production, and technology fromBengal helped improve thesericulture industry.[92] State factories were established inKanakapura and Taramandelpeth for producing cannons and gunpowder respectively. The state held the monopoly in the production of essentials such as sugar, salt, iron, pepper, cardamom, betel nut, tobacco andsandalwood, as well as the extraction of incense oil from sandalwood and the mining of silver, gold and precious stones. Sandalwood was exported to China and thePersian Gulf countries and sericulture was developed in twenty-one centres within the kingdom.[93]
TheMysore silk industry was initiated during the rule of Tipu Sultan.[94] Later the industry was hit by a global depression and competition from imported silk andrayon. In the second half of the 20th century, it however revived and theMysore State became the topmultivoltine silk producer in India.[94]
This system changed under the subsidiary alliance with the British, when tax payments were made in cash and were used for the maintenance of the army, police and other civil and public establishments. A portion of the tax was transferred to England as the "Indian tribute".[95] Unhappy with the loss of their traditional revenue system and the problems they faced, peasants rose in rebellion in many parts of south India.[96] After 1800, theCornwallis land reforms came into effect. Reade, Munro, Graham and Thackeray were some administrators who improved the economic conditions of the masses.[97] However, the homespun textile industry suffered while most of India was under British rule, except the producers of the finest cloth and the coarse cloth which was popular with the rural masses. This was due to the manufacturing mills ofManchester,Liverpool and Scotland being more than a match for the traditional handweaving industry, especially in spinning and weaving.[98][99]
The economic revolution in England and the tariff policies of the British also caused massive de-industrialization in other sectors throughout British India and Mysore. For example, the gunny bag weaving business had been a monopoly of the Goniga people, which they lost when the British began ruling the area. The import of a chemical substitute for saltpetre (potassium nitrate) affected theUppar community, the traditional makers of saltpetre for use in gunpowder. The import of kerosene affected theGaniga community which supplied oils. Foreign enamel and crockery industries affected the native pottery business, and mill-made blankets replaced the country-made blankets calledkambli.[100] This economic fallout led to the formation of community-based social welfare organisations to help those within the community to cope better with their new economic situation, including youth hostels for students seeking education and shelter.[101] However, the British economic policies created a class structure consisting of a newly established middle class comprising various blue and white-collared occupational groups, including agents, brokers, lawyers, teachers, civil servants and physicians. Due to a more flexible caste hierarchy, the middle class contained a heterogeneous mix of people from different castes.[102]
_at_Shravanabelagola.jpg)
The early kings of the Wodeyar dynasty were followers ofJainism. The later kings, starting from the 17th century, took toVaishnavism, the worship of the Hindu godVishnu andShiva.[103][104] According to musicologist Meera Rajaram Pranesh, King Raja Wodeyar I was a devotee of the god Vishnu, King Dodda Devaraja was honoured with the title "Protector of Brahmins" (Deva Brahmana Paripalaka) for his support toBrahmins, and Maharaja Krishnaraja III was devoted to the goddessChamundeshwari (a form of Hindu goddessDurga).[105] Wilks ("History of Mysore", 1800) wrote about aJangama (Veerashaiva saint-devotee of Shiva) uprising, related to excessive taxation, which was put down firmly by Chikka Devaraja. HistorianD.R. Nagaraj claims that four hundredJangamas were murdered in the process but clarifies that Veerashaiva literature itself is silent about the issue.[106] HistorianSuryanath Kamath claims King Chikka Devaraja was a Srivaishnava (follower ofSri Vaishnavism, a sect of Vaishnavism) but was not anti-Veerashaiva.[107] Historian Aiyangar concurs that some of the kings including the celebrated Narasaraja I and Chikka Devaraja were Vaishnavas, but suggests this may not have been the case with all Wodeyar rulers.[108] The rise of the modern-day Mysore city as a centre ofsouth Indian culture has been traced from the period of their sovereignty.[109] Raja Wodeyar I initiated the celebration of theDasara festival in Mysore, a proud tradition of the erstwhile Vijayanagara royal family.[110][111]
Jainism, though in decline during the late medieval period, also enjoyed the patronage of the Mysore kings, who made munificent endowments to theJain monastic order at the town ofShravanabelagola.[112][113] Records indicate that some Wodeyar kings not only presided over theMahamastakabhisheka ceremony, an important Jain religious event at Shravanabelagola, but also personally offered prayers (puja) during the years 1659, 1677, 1800, 1825, 1910, 1925, 1940, and 1953.[114]
The contact between South India andIslam goes back to the 7th century when trade betweenHindu kingdoms andIslamiccaliphates thrived. These Muslim traders settled on theMalabar Coast with the permission and blessings of the Hindu Lords of those parts and married local Hindu women, and their descendants came to be known asMappillas.[115] By the 14th century, Muslims had become a significant minority in the south, though the advent of Portuguese missionaries checked their growth.[115] Hyder Ali, though a devout Muslim, did not allow his faith to interfere with the administration of the predominantly Hindu kingdom ruled by Hindu kings. Historians are, however, divided on the intentions of Haider Ali's son, Tipu Sultan. It has been claimed that Tipu raised Hindus to prominent positions in his administration back in Mysore, made generous grants to Hindu temples and Brahmins, and generally respected other faiths and that any religious conversions that Tipu undertook were as punishment to those who rebelled against his authority.[116] However, this has been countered by other historians who claim that Tipu Sultan treated the non-Muslims of Mysore far better than those of the Malabar Coast,Raichur andKodagu regions. They point out that Tipu was responsible for mass conversions of Christians and Hindus in these regions by force.[117][118]
Before the 18th century, the society of the kingdom followed age-old and deeply established norms of social interaction between people. Accounts by contemporaneous travellers indicate the widespread practice of theHindu caste system and animal sacrifices during the nine-day celebrations (calledMahanavami).[119] Later, fundamental changes occurred due to the struggle between native and foreign powers. Though wars between the Hindu kingdoms and the Sultanates continued, the battles between native rulers (including Muslims) and the newly arrived British took centre stage.[76] The spread of English education, the introduction of the printing press and the criticism of the prevailing social system by Christian missionaries helped make the society more open and flexible. The rise of modern nationalism throughout India also affected Mysore.[120]
With the advent of British power, English education gained prominence in addition to traditional education in local languages. These changes were orchestrated byLord Elphinstone, the governor of theMadras Presidency. His plan became the constitution of the central collegiate institution or University Board in 1841.[121] Accordingly, a high school department of the university was established. For imparting education in the interior regions, schools were raised in principal towns which eventually were elevated to college level, with each college becoming central to many local schools (zilla schools).[122] The earliest English-medium schools appeared in 1833 in Mysore and spread across the region. In 1858, the Department of Education was founded in Mysore and by 1881, there were an estimated 2,087 English-medium schools in the state of Mysore. Higher education became available with the formation ofBangalore Central College inBangalore (1870),Maharaja's College (1879),Maharani's College (1901) and theMysore University (1916) in Mysore and theSt. Agnes College inMangalore (1921).[123]
Social reforms aimed at removing practices such assati and social discrimination based uponuntouchability, as well as demands for the emancipation of the lower classes, swept across India and influenced Mysore territory.[124] In 1894, the kingdom passed laws to abolish the marriage of girls below the age of eight.Remarriage of widowed women and marriage of destitute women were encouraged, and in 1923, some women were granted permission to exercise theirfranchise in elections.[125] There were, however, uprisings against British authority in the Mysore territory, notably theKodagu uprising in 1835 (after the British dethroned the local ruler Chikkaviraraja) and theKanara uprising of 1837.[126] The era of printing heralded by Christian missionaries, notablyHermann Mögling, resulted in the founding of printing presses across the kingdom. The publication of ancient and contemporary Kannada books (such as thePampa Bharata and theJaimini Bharata), aKannada-language Bible, a bilingual dictionary and aKannada newspaper calledKannada Samachara began in the early 19th century.[127]Aluru Venkata Rao published a consolidated Kannada history glorifying the achievements ofKannadigas in his bookKarnataka Gatha Vaibhava.[128]
Classical English andSanskrit drama,[129] and nativeYakshaganamusical theatre influenced the Kannada stage and produced famous dramatists likeGubbi Veeranna.[130] The public began to enjoyCarnatic music through its broadcast via public address systems set up on the palace grounds.[131]Mysore paintings, which were inspired by theBengal Renaissance, were created by artists such asSundarayya, Ala Singarayya, andB. Venkatappa.[132]
The era of the kingdom of Mysore is considered a golden age in the development ofKannada literature. Not only was the Mysore court adorned by famousBrahmin andVeerashaiva writers and composers,[113][133] the kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions.[134][135] While conventional literature in philosophy and religion remained popular, writings in new genres such as chronicle, biography, history, encyclopaedia, novel, drama, and musical treatise became popular.[136] A native form of folk literature with dramatic representation calledYakshagana gained popularity.[137][138] A remarkable development of the later period was the influence ofEnglish literature and classicalSanskrit literature on Kannada.[139]
Govinda Vaidya, a native ofSrirangapatna, wroteKanthirava Narasaraja Vijaya, a eulogy of his patron King Narasaraja I. Written insangatya metre (a composition meant to be rendered to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), the book describes the king's court, popular music and the types of musical compositions of the age in twenty-six chapters.[140][141] King Chikka Devaraja was the earliest composer of the dynasty.[32][142] To him is ascribed the famous treatise on music calledGita Gopala. Though inspired byJayadeva's Sanskrit workGita Govinda, it had an originality of its own and was written insaptapadi metre.[143] Contemporary poets who left their mark on the entire Kannada-speaking region include theBrahmin poetLakshmisa and theitinerantVeerashaiva poetSarvajna. Female poets also played a role in literary developments, with Cheluvambe (the queen of Krishnaraja Wodeyar I), Helavanakatte Giriyamma, Sri Rangamma (1685) and Sanchi Honnamma (Hadibadeya Dharma, late 17th century) writing notable works.[144][145]
A polyglot, King Narasaraja II authored fourteen Yakshaganas in various languages, though all are written in Kannada script.[146] Maharaja Krishnaraja III was a prolific writer in Kannada for which he earned the honorificAbhinava Bhoja (a comparison to the medieval KingBhoja).[147] Over forty writings are attributed to him, of which the musical treatiseSritattvanidhi and a poetical romance calledSaugandika Parinaya written in two versions, asangatya and a drama, are most well known.[148] Under the patronage of the Maharaja, Kannada literature began its slow and gradual change towards modernity. Kempu Narayana'sMudramanjusha ("The Seal Casket", 1823) is the earliest work that has touches of modern prose.[149] However, the turning point came with the historically importantAdbhuta Ramayana (1895) andRamaswamedham (1898) byMuddanna, whom the Kannada scholar Narasimha Murthy considers "aJanus like figure" of modern Kannada literature. Muddanna has deftly handled an ancient epic from an entirely modern viewpoint.[150]
Basavappa Shastry, a native of Mysore and a luminary in the court of Maharaja Krishnaraja III and Maharaja Chamaraja X, is known as the "Grandfather of Kannada theatre" (Kannada Nataka Pitamaha).[151] He authored dramas in Kannada and translatedWilliam Shakespeare's "Othello" toShurasena Charite. His well-known translations from Sanskrit to Kannada are many and includeKalidasa andAbhijnana Shakuntala.[152]
Under Maharaja Krishnaraja III and his successors – Chamaraja X, Krishnaraja IV and the last ruler, Jayachamaraja, the Mysore court came to be the largest and most renowned patron of music.[153] While the Tanjore and Travancore courts also extended great patronage and emphasised preservation of the art, the unique combination of royal patronage of individual musicians, the founding of music schools to kindle public interest and patronage of European music publishers and producers set Mysore apart.[154] Maharaja Krishnaraja III, himself a musician and musicologist of merit, composed severaljavalis (light lyrics) and devotional songs in Kannada under the titleAnubhava pancharatna. His compositions bear thepen name (mudra) "Chamundi'" or '"Chamundeshwari'", in honour of the Wodeyar family deity.[155]
Under Krishnaraja IV, art received further patronage. A distinct school of music that gave importance toraga andbhava evolved.[132][156][157] The Royal School of Music founded at the palace helped institutionalise teaching of the art. Carnatic compositions were printed and the European staff notation came to be employed by royal musicians. Western music was also encouraged –Margaret Cousins' piano concerto with the Palace Orchestra marked the celebrations ofBeethoven's centenary in Bangalore.[153] Maharaja Jayachamaraja, also a renowned composer of Carnatickritis (a musical composition), sponsored a series of recordings of Russian composerNikolai Medtner and others.[153] The court ensured that Carnatic music also kept up with the times.Gramophone recordings of the palace band were made and sold commercially.[158] Attention was paid to the "technology of the concert". Lavish sums were spent on acquiring various instruments including the unconventional horn violin,theremin andcalliaphone, a mechanical music player.[159]
The Mysore court was home to several renowned experts (vidwan) of the time.Veena Sheshanna, a court musician during the rule of Maharaja Chamaraja X,[160] is considered one of the greatest exponents of theveena.[161] His achievements in classical music won Mysore a premier place in the art of instrumental Carnatic music and he was given the honorificVainika Shikhamani by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV.[162][163]Mysore Vasudevacharya was a noted musician and composer in Sanskrit andTelugu from Mysore.[164] He holds the unique distinction of being patronised by four generations of Mysore kings and rulers and for being court musician to three of them.[165][166]H.L. Muthiah Bhagavatar was another musician-composer who adorned the Mysore court.[167] Considered one of the most important composers of the post-Tyagaraja period,[168] he is credited with about 400 compositions in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu andTamil under the pen name "Harikesha". Amongviolinists,T. Chowdiah emerged as one of the most accomplished exponents of the time. He is known to have mastered the seven-stringed violin.[130][169] Chowdiah was appointed court musician by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV in 1939 and received such titles as "Sangeeta Ratna" and "Sangeeta Kalanidhi". He is credited with compositions in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit under the pen name "Trimakuta".[170]
The architectural style of courtly and royal structures in the kingdom underwent profound changes during British rule – a mingling of European traditions with native elements. The Hindu temples in the kingdom were built in typical South IndianDravidian style – a modest version of the Vijayanagara building idiom.[171] When in power, Tipu Sultan constructed two places namely Lal Mahal Palace (later destroyed after the siege of Serirangpatnam in 1799), the Summer Palace and the famous Masjid e Aala in Srirangapatna, his capital. However, it is the city of Mysore that is best known for its royal palaces, earning it the nickname "City of Palaces". The city's main palace, theMysore Palace, is also known as the Amba Vilas Palace. The original complex was destroyed by fire and a new palace was commissioned by the Queen-Regent and designed by the English architectHenry Irwin in 1897.[172] The overall design is a combination ofHindu,Islamic,Indo-Saracenic andMoorish styles, which for the first time in India, used cast iron columns and roof frames. The striking feature of the exterior is the granite columns that support cusped arches on the portico, a tall tower whose finial is a gilded dome with an umbrella (chattri) on it, and groups of other domes around it.[173] The interior is richly decorated with marbled walls and a teakwood ceiling on which are sculptures of Hindu deities. TheDurbar hall leads to an inner private hall through silver doors. This opulent room has floor panels that are inlaid with semi-precious stones, and a stained glass roof supported centrally by columns and arches. The marriage hall (Kalyana mantapa) in the palace complex is noted for its stained glass octagonal dome with peacock motifs.[174]
TheLalitha Mahal Palace was built in 1921 by E. W. Fritchley under the commission of Maharaja Krishnaraja IV. The architectural style is called "Renaissance" and exhibits concepts from Englishmanor houses and Italianpalazzos.[175] The central dome is believed to be modelled onSt. Paul's Cathedral in London. Other important features are the Italian marble staircase, the polished wooden flooring in the banquet and dance halls, and the Belgian cut glass lamps.[175] TheJaganmohan Palace was commissioned in 1861 and was completed in 1910. The three-storeyed building with attractivedomes,finials andcupolas was the venue of many a royal celebration. It is now called the Chamarajendra Art Gallery and houses a rich collection of artefacts.[176]
TheMysore University campus, also called "Manasa Gangotri", is home to several architecturally interesting buildings. Some of them are in European style and were completed in the late 19th century. They include theJayalakshmi Vilas mansion, theCrawford Hall, theOriental Research Institute (built between 1887 and 1891) with itsIonic andCorinthian columns, and the district offices (Athara Kutchery, 1887). The Athara Kutchery, which initially served as the office of the British commissioner, has an octagonal dome and a finial that adds to its beauty.[177] The Maharaja's summer palace, built in 1880, is called the Lokaranjan Mahal and initially served as a school for royalty. TheRajendra Vilas Palace, built in the Indo-British style atop theChamundi Hill, was commissioned in 1922 and completed in 1938 by Maharaja Krishnaraja IV.[175] Other royal mansions built by the Mysore rulers were the Chittaranjan Mahal in Mysore and theBangalore Palace in Bangalore, a structure built on the lines of England'sWindsor Castle.[178] The Central Food Technical Research Institute (Cheluvamba Mansion), built inbaroque European renaissance style, was once the residence of princess Cheluvambaamani Avaru, a sister of Maharaja Krishnaraja IV. Its extensivepilaster work and mosaic flooring are noteworthy.[179]
Most famous among the many temples built by the Wodeyars is theChamundeshwari Temple atop theChamundi Hill. The earliest structure here was consecrated in the 12th century and was later patronised by the Mysore rulers. Maharaja Krishnaraja III added a Dravidian-stylegopuram in 1827. The temple has silver-plated doors with images of deities. Other images include those of the Hindu godGanesha and of Maharaja Krishnaraja III with his three queens.[180] Surrounding the main palace in Mysore and inside the fort area group of temples, built in various periods. The Prasanna Krishnaswamy Temple (1829), the Lakshmiramana Swamy Temple whose earliest structures date to 1499, the Trinesvara Swamy Temple (late 16th century), the Shweta Varaha Swamy Temple built by Purnaiah with a touch ofHoysala style of architecture, the Prasanna Venkataramana Swami Temple (1836) notable for 12 murals of the Wodeyar rulers.[181] Well-known temples outside Mysore city are theyali ("mythical beast") pillaredVenkataramana temple built in the late 17th century atBangalore fort, and the Ranganatha temple in Srirangapatna.[182]
Tipu Sultan built a woodencolonnaded palace called theDariya Daulat Palace (lit, "garden of the wealth of the sea") in Srirangapatna in 1784. Built in the Indo-Saracenic style, the palace is known for its intricate woodwork consisting of ornamental arches, striped columns floral designs, and paintings. The west wall of the palace is covered with murals depicting Tipu Sultan's victory overColonel Baillie's army at Pollilur, nearKanchipuram in 1780. One mural shows Tipu enjoying the fragrance of a bouquet while the battle is in progress. In that painting, the French soldiers'moustaches distinguish them from the cleanshaven British soldiers.[183][184] Also in Srirangapatna is the Gumbazmausoleum, built by Tipu Sultan in 1784. It houses the graves of Tipu and Hyder Ali. The granite base is capped with a dome built of brick and pilasters.[185]
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The first iron-cased and metal-cylinderrocket artillery were invented byTipu Sultan and his fatherHyder Ali, in the 1780s. He successfully used these metal-cylinderrockets against the larger forces of theBritish East India Company during theAnglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km (1 mi) range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in theFourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring theCongreve rocket, which was soon put into use in theNapoleonic Wars.[186]
According to Stephen Oliver Fought and John F. Guilmartin Jr. inEncyclopædia Britannica (2008):
Hyder Ali, prince ofMysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain thecombustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. The range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Tipu Sultan, continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles atSeringapatam in1792 and1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British."[187]
The rockets were observed by Lieutenant GeneralThomas Desaguliers,colonel commandant of theRoyal Artillery at Woolwich, who was impressed by reports of their effectiveness, and undertook several unsuccessful experiments to produce his rocket weapons. Several captured Mysorean rockets were sent to England following the annexation of the Mysorean kingdom intoBritish India following the death ofTipu Sultan in thesiege of Seringapatam.[188] The British research led to the development of theCongreve rocket, designed by British inventorSir William Congreve in 1808.[189]
DrAPJ Abdul Kalam, the formerPresident of India, in his Tipu Sultan Shaheed Memorial Lecture in Bangalore (30 November 1991), called Tipu Sultan the innovator of the world's first war rocket. Two of these rockets, captured by the British at Srirangapatna, were displayed in theRoyal Artillery Museum in London. According to historian DrDulari Qureshi Tipu Sultan was a fierce warrior king and was so quick in his movement that it seemed to the enemy that he was fighting on many fronts at the same time.[190]
Tipu Sultan's father had expanded onMysore's use of rocketry, making critical innovations in the rockets themselves and the military logistics of their use. He deployed as many as 1,200 specialised troops in his army to operate rocket launchers. These men were skilled in operating the weapons and were trained to launch their rockets at an angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the distance to the target. The rockets had twin side sharpened blades mounted on them, and when fireden masse, spun and wreaked significant damage against a large army. Tipu greatly expanded the use of rockets after Hyder's death, deploying as many as 5,000 rocketeers at a time.[191] The rockets deployed by Tipu during theBattle of Pollilur were much more advanced than those the British East India Company had previously seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missiles (up to 2 km range).[191][188]
British accounts describe the use of the rockets during the third and fourth wars.[192] During the climactic battle at Srirangapatna in 1799, British shells struck a magazine containing rockets, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising from the battlements. After Tipu's defeat in the Fourth War, the British captured a number of the Mysorean rockets. These became influential in British rocket development, inspiring theCongreve rocket, which was soon put into use in theNapoleonic Wars.[188]
Tipu's Tiger is an 18th-centuryautomaton or mechanical toy created forTipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore (present-dayBengaluru) inIndia. The carved and painted wood casing represents a tiger mauling a near-life-size European man. Mechanisms inside the tiger and the man's body make one hand of the man move, emit a wailing sound from his mouth and grunt from the tiger. In addition, a flap on the side of the tiger folds down to reveal the keyboard of a smallpipe organ with 18 notes.[193]
The automaton makes use of his emblem of the tiger and expresses his hatred of his enemy, the British of theEast India Company. The tiger was taken from hissummer palace when East India Company troopsstormed Tipu's capital in 1799. TheGovernor General,Lord Mornington, sent the tiger to Britain initially intending it to be an exhibit in theTower of London. First exhibited to the London public in 1808 inEast India House, then the offices of the East India Company in London, it was later transferred to theVictoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in 1880 (accession number 2545(IS)).[194] It now forms part of the permanent exhibit on the "Imperial courts of South India".[195] From the moment it arrived in London to the present day, Tipu's Tiger has been a popular attraction to the public.
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