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| Muslim conquest of the Levant | |||||||||
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| Rashidun Caliphate | Byzantine Empire Ghassanids Tanukhids Banu Judham Banu Lakhm | ||||||||
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TheMuslim conquest of the Levant (Arabic:فَتْحُ الشَّام,romanized: Fatḥ al-šām;lit. 'Conquest of Syria'), orArab conquest of Syria,[1] was a 634–638 CE conquest ofByzantine Syria by theRashidun Caliphate.
A part of the widerArab–Byzantine wars, theLevant was brought underArab Muslim rule and developed into the provincial region ofBilad al-Sham. Clashes between the Arabs and Byzantines on the southern Levantine borders of theByzantine Empire had occurred during the lifetime ofMuhammad, with theBattle of Muʿtah in 629 CE. However, the actual conquest did not begin until 634, two years after Muhammad's death. It was led by the first twoRashidun caliphs who succeeded Muhammad:Abu Bakr andUmar ibn al-Khattab. During this time,Khalid ibn al-Walid was the most important leader of theRashidun army.
Syria had been under Roman rule for seven centuries prior to the Arab Muslim conquest and had been invaded by theSassanid Persians on a number of occasions during the 3rd, 6th and 7th centuries; it had also been subject to raids by the Sassanids' Arab allies, theLakhmids.[2] During theRoman period, beginning after thefall of Jerusalem in the year 70, the entire region (Judea,Samaria, and theGalilee) was renamedPalaestina, subdivided into Diocese I and II.[3] The Romans also renamed an area of land including theNegev,Sinai, and the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula asPalaestina Salutaris, sometimes calledPalaestina III orPalaestina Tertia.[3] Part of the area was ruled by the Arab vassal state of theGhassanids'symmachos.[4]
During thelast of theRoman-Persian Wars, beginning in 603, thePersians underKhosrau II had succeeded in occupying Syria,Palestine andEgypt for over a decade before being forced by the victories ofHeraclius to conclude the peace of 628.[5] Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans (orByzantines as modern Western historians conventionally refer to Romans of this period) were still in the process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years.[5] Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces: Syria proper stretched fromAntioch andAleppo in the north to the top of theDead Sea. To the west and south of the Dead Sea lay the province ofPalestine.
Syria was mostly made up ofAramaic andGreek speakers with a partly Arab population, especially in its eastern and southern parts. TheArabs of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerfulGhassanid tribe fromYemen to Syria, who converted toChristianity and thereafter ruled a semi-autonomous state with their own king under Roman vassalage. The Ghassanid Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with the Ghassanid king ruling over the Arabs inJordan and Southern Syria from his capital atBostra. The last of the Ghassanid kings, who ruled at the time of the Muslim invasion, wasJabalah ibn al-Aiham.
The Byzantine EmperorHeraclius, after re-capturing Syria from theSassanians, set up new defense lines fromGaza to the south end of the Dead Sea. These lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits, and the bulk of the Byzantine defenses were concentrated in Northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. The drawback of this defense line was that it enabled theMuslims, advancing from the desert in the south, to reach as far north as Gaza before meeting regular Byzantine troops.
The 7th century was a time of rapid military change in the Byzantine Empire. The empire was certainly not in a state of collapse when it faced the new challenge fromArabia after being exhausted by recentRoman–Persian Wars, but utterly failed to tackle the challenge effectively.[6]
Military confrontations with theByzantine Empire began during the lifetime ofMuhammad. TheBattle of Mu'tah was fought in September 629 near the village ofMu'tah, east of theJordan River andKarak inKarak Governorate, between the forces of theIslamic prophetMuhammad andthe forces of theByzantine Empire and theirArab ChristianGhassanid vassals. In Islamic historical sources, the battle is usually described as theMuslims' attempt to take retribution against theGhassanids after a Ghassanid official executed Muhammad's emissary who was en route toBosra.[7] During the battle the Muslim army was routed.[8][9] After three Muslim leaders were killed, the command was given toKhalid ibn al-Walid and he succeeded in saving the rest of the forces.[8] The surviving Muslim forces retreated toMedina.
After theFarewell Pilgrimage in 632,Muhammad appointedUsama ibn Zayd as the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade the region ofBalqa in theByzantine Empire. This expedition was known as theExpedition of Usama bin Zayd and its stated aim was to avenge the Muslim losses at theBattle of Mu'tah, in which Usama's father and Muhammad's former adopted son,Zayd ibn Harithah, had been killed.[10] Usama's expedition in May/June 632 was successful and his army was the first Muslim force to successfully invade and raid Byzantine territory.
Muhammad died in June 632, andAbu Bakr was appointedCaliph and political successor atMedina. Soon afterAbu Bakr's succession, several Arab tribes revolted against him in theRidda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.
Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of thelargest empires in history, starting with a confrontation with thePersian Empire under the generalKhalid ibn al-Walid.
After successful campaigns against the Sassanids and the ensuing conquest ofIraq, Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, he also confronted the Ghassanids, Arab clients of the Byzantines.Medina soon recruited tribal contingents from all over theArabian peninsula. Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until 636, when CaliphUmar fell short of manpower for theBattle of Yarmouk and theBattle of al-Qādisiyyah. The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised the army as a state department.Abu Bakr organised the army into four corps, each with its own commander and objective.
Abu Bakr ordered the corps to maintain contact for mutual support and appointed Abu Ubaidah as commander-in-chief, with Yazid as his deputy.[11][12] He also appointed Yazid as commander of one of the military districts and gave him detailed ethical and operational instructions:
When you meet the enemy, and God leads you to victory, do not manacle, mutilate, maim, or betray, and do not accuse [the defeated] of cowardice. Do not, you all, kill children, old men, or women; do not burn palm trees or uproot them; do not cut down fruitful trees; and do not slaughter cattle except for eating [them]. You will pass by people in their hermitages who claim to have secluded themselves for [worshipping] God; leave them to what they have secluded themselves for. You will also find others in the middle of whose heads Satan has taken up abode, as if the middles of their heads were the sand grouses' nests(afahīs al-qatā). Strike the nests which they have hollowed in their heads with swords until they turn repentantly to Islam, or until they bring tribute by hand and with humility. God will certainly support those who support Him and His Messengers in absentia(bi-al-ghayb). I bid farewell to you, and may God's peace and mercy be upon you.[13][14]
The authenticity of these instructions has been questioned by some modern scholars. James Moreton Wackeley characterises it as a literary construct intended to idealise early Muslim leadership,[15] whileAlbrecht Noth interprets such speeches as part of a wider tradition in which later transmitters reworked existing material to promote moral and legal norms, retroactively ascribing it to prominent early figures to strengthen its authority.[16] Such interpretations are situated within a broader secular academic discourse that applies historical-critical methods to the Islamic tradition.[17][18][19][20]
Moving to their assigned target beyond Tabouk, Yazid's corps made contact with a smallChristian Arab force that was retreating after a skirmish with the Muslim advance guard, after which Yazid made for the Valley ofArabah where it meets the southern end of theDead Sea.
As the main Byzantine defence line started from the coastal regions near Ghazahh,[dubious –discuss] Yazid arrived at the Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reachedElat.[dubious –discuss] The two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps, respectively, into Palestine, were easily defeated by them, though they did prevent the Rashidun forces from reaching their assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil, on the other hand, continued their march, and by early May 634 they reached the region betweenBosra andJabiya.[12] The Emperor Heraclius, having received intelligence of the movements of the Muslim armies from his Arab clients, began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraclius' orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in the north started moving to gather at Ayjnadyn. From here they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of the rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of the Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates, was about 100,000.[21] Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in the third week of May 634. Because Abu Ubaida did not have experience as a commander of military forces in such major operations, especially against the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to assume command. According to early Muslim chronicles, Abu Bakr said, "By Allah, I shall destroy the Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid Ibn Al Walid."[22]
Khalid immediately set out for Syria fromAl-Hirah, inIraq, in early June, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong.[12] There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq: one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal, and the other was through Mesopotamia, passing throughRaqqa. The Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, so Khalid avoided the conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal, as it was the longer route, and would take weeks to reach Syria. Khalid avoided the Mesopotamian route because of the presence of Roman garrisons there and in Northern Syria. To engage them at a time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a shorter route to Syria, an unconventional route passing through theSyrian Desert. It is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a predetermined water source at anoasis. Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught the Byzantines on their right flank. According to modern historians, this ingenious strategic maneuver unhinged the Byzantine defences in Syria.[23]
Ain Tamer, Quraqir, Suwa,Arak, and the historical city ofTadmur were first to fall to Khalid.Sukhnah,al-Qaryatayn andHawarin were captured after theBattle of al-Qaryatayn and the Battle of Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towardsDamascus through a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab Pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towardsBosra, the capital of the Ghassanids. He ordered other Muslim commanders to concentrate their armies, still near the Syrian-Arabian border, at Bosra. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated aGhassanid army in a quick battle, called theBattle of Marj-al-Rahit. Meanwhile, Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of the Muslim armies in Syria, had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Bosra. The latter laid siege to Bosra with his small army of 4000. The Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, realizing that this might be the advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, sallied out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; however, Khalid reached the arena with his cavalry and saved Shurhabil. The combined forces of Khalid, Shurhabil, and Abu Ubaidah then resumed thesiege of Bosra, which surrendered some time in mid-July 634 CE, effectively ending the Ghassanid Dynasty.
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Here Khalid took over the command of the Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, according to the instructions of the Caliph. Massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to the desert. Early Muslim sources claim the Byzantine strength to have been 90,000, although most modern historians doubt the figures, yet consider this battle to be the key to breaking Byzantine power in Syria. On Khalid's instructions, all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they won adecisive battle against the Byzantines on 30 July.
This defeat left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus, Thomas, son-in-law of Emperor Heraclius, was in charge. Having received intelligence of Khalid's march towards Damascus, he prepared for its defence, writing to Emperor Heraclius in Emesa for reinforcements. Moreover, Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of a siege, sent armies to delay or, if possible, halt Khalid's march to Damascus. One of these armies was defeated at theBattle of Yaqusa in mid-August nearLake Tiberias, 145 kilometres (90 mi) from Damascus. Another was defeated in theBattle of Maraj as Saffer on 19 August. These engagements had the desired effect, delaying Khalid long enough to prepare for a siege. However, by the time Heraclius' reinforcements had reached the city Khalid had begun his siege, having reached Damascus on 20 August. To isolate the city from the rest of the region Khalid placed detachments south on the road to Palestine and in the north at the Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraclius' reinforcements were intercepted and routed at theBattle of Sanita-al-Uqab, 30 kilometres (20 mi) from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break the siege. Khalid finally attacked andconquered Damascus on 18 September after 30 days, although, according to some sources, the siege had in fact lasted for four or six months. Heraclius, having received the news of the fall of Damascus, left forAntioch fromEmesa. The citizens were granted peace on the promise of annual tribute and theByzantine army was given three days to go as far as they could. After three days, Khalid took a cavalry force, caught up to the Romans using an unknown shortcut, and attacked them at theBattle of Maraj-al-Debaj, 305 kilometres (190 miles) north of Damascus.
On 22 August, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from command and appointAbu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander-in-chief of theIslamic army. Abu Ubaidah got the letter memorializing this during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city had been conquered. Later on, Khalid pledged his loyalty to the new Caliph and continued to serve as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said, "If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph, then we listen and obey."[24]
Abu Ubaidah moved more slowly and steadily, which had a concomitant effect on military operations in Syria. Abu Ubaidah, being an admirer of Khalid, made him commander of the cavalry and relied heavily on his advice during the whole campaign.[25]
Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern dayAblah, nearZahlé 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of Beirut. There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison nearby, but the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled the small Muslim detachment, but before it was completely destroyed, Khalid came to the rescue of the Muslim army. Abu Ubaidah, having received new intelligence, had sent Khalid. Khalid reached the battlefield and defeated the garrison on 15 October and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners.By capturing central Syria, the Muslims had given a decisive blow to the Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march toFahl, which is about 150 metres (500 ft) below sea level, where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of the Battle of Ajnadayn were present. The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut Muslim communications with Arabia. Moreover, with this large garrison at their rear Palestine could not be invaded.Khalid, commanding the advance guard, reached Fahl first and found that the Byzantines had flooded the plains by blocking theRiver Jordan. The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at theBattle of Fahl on 23 January 635.[26]
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Next, the Muslim armies consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper into Palestine.Bet She'an surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender ofTiberias in February. Umar, after having learned of the position and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to his corps commanders there and ordered Yazid to capture theMediterranean coast. Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison and defeated them in the Second Battle of Ajnadyn. The two corps then separated, with Amr moving to captureNablus,Amawas,Jaffa,Haifa,Gaza andYubna in order to complete the conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil moved against the coastal towns ofAcre andTyre. Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports ofSidon,Arqa,Byblos andBeirut.[27] By 635CE, Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception ofJerusalem,Caesarea andAshkelon, were in Muslim hands. On the orders of Umar, Yazid next besieged Caesarea, which, barring a suspension around the time of theBattle of Yarmouk, lasted until the port fell in 640.
After the battle, which proved to be the key to Palestine and Jordan, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr's corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with a relatively larger corps, moved north to conquer Northern Syria.While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl, Heraclius, sensing an opportunity, quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly thereafter, the Muslims, having just won the Battle of Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. In the meantime, the Byzantine army split in two, one deployed at Maraj al Rome (Beqaa Valley) led by Schinos; the other, commanded by Theodras, stationed to the west of Damascus (Al-Sabboura region).[28][29]
During the night, Theodras advanced to Damascus to launch a surprise attack. Khalid's spy informed him about the move and Khalid, having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with hismobile guard. While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in theBattle of Marj ar-Rum, Khalid moved toDamascus with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras there.[29][28] A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towardsHeliopolis, where the greatTemple of Jupiter stood.[30]
In May 636, Heliopolis surrendered to the Muslims after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towardsEmesa.Emesa andChalcis offered a peace treaty for a year. Abu Ubaidah accepted the offer and, rather than invading districts of Emesa and Chalcis, he consolidated his rule in conquered land and capturedHamah, andMaarrat al-Nu'man. Having mustered sizeable armies at Antioch, Heraclius sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of Northern Syria, like Emesa and Chalcis. The Byzantine reinforcement of Emesa violated the treaty, and Abu Ubaidah and Khalid accordingly marched there. A Byzantine army that halted Khalid's advance guard was defeated. The Muslimsbesieged Emesa which was finally conquered in March 636 CE after two months.[citation needed]
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After capturing Emesa, Khalid moved north to capture Northern Syria, using his cavalry as an advance guard and raiding force. At Shaizar, Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius' ambitious plan to take back Syria with an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong. Khalid immediately ended the raid.
After his past experiences, Heraclius now avoided pitched battle with the Muslim army. His plans were to send massive reinforcements to all the major cities, isolate the Muslim corps from each other, and then separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies.
Part of his plan was to coordinate his attacks with those ofYazdgerd III, theSassanid emperor. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd was supposed to mount a well-coordinated counterattack on his front inIraq, while Heraclius attacked in the Levant. However, it was not meant to be. Umar probably had intelligence of this alliance, and started peace negotiations withYazdegerd III, apparently inviting him to joinIslam. When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owing to the exhaustion of his government, could not coordinate with the Heraclian offensive, frustrating the plan.
Five massive armies were launched in June to recapture Syria. Khalid, having grasped Heraclius' plan, feared that the Muslim armies would become isolated and then destroyed piecemeal. He thus suggested to Abu Ubaidah in a council of war that he consolidate all the Muslim armies at one place to force a decisive battle with the Byzantines. Abu Ubaidah agreed, and concentrated them atJabiya. This maneuver delivered a decisive blow to Heraclius' plan, since the latter did not wish to engage his troops in open battle with the Muslim light cavalry. From Jabiya, again on Khalid's suggestion, Abu Ubaidah ordered the Muslim troops to withdraw to the Plain of the Yarmouk River, where the cavalry could be used effectively. While the Muslim armies were gathering at Yarmouk, Khalid intercepted and routed the Byzantine advance guard, ensuring a safe path of retreat.
The Muslim armies reached the plain in July. A week or two later, around mid-July, the Byzantine army arrived. The Byzantine commander-in-chief, Vahan, sent Ghassanid forces, under their king, Jabala, to gauge the Muslim strength. Khalid's mobile guard defeated and routed them, the last action before the battle started. For one month negotiations continued between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at the Byzantine camp. Meanwhile, Muslim reinforcements arrived from Umar.
Abu Ubaidah, in another council of war, transferred field command of the Muslim army to Khalid. Finally, on 15 August, theBattle of Yarmouk was fought, lasting six days and ending in a major defeat for the Byzantines. This battle and subsequent clean-up engagements forever ended Byzantine domination of the Levant.
Meanwhile, Umar occupied Yazdegerd III in a grand deception.[citation needed] Yazdegerd III lost his army at theBattle of Qadisiyyah in November, three months after Yarmouk, ending Sassanid control west ofPersia.
With the Byzantine army routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured the territory they had conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high commanders, including Khalid, and decided to conquerJerusalem. TheSiege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Umar personally. Amr-bin al-Aas suggested that Khalid should be sent to impersonate thecaliph, due to his very strong resemblance. However, Khalid was recognized and Umar had to come himself to accept the surrender of Jerusalem in April 637. Umar appointed his close advisorAli to hold the lieutenancy of Medina.[31] After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid's corps went to Damascus and then capturedBeirut. Amr and Shurhabil's corps left to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, at the head of a 17,000-strong army, moved north to conquer Northern Syria.
According to lexicographerDavid ben Abraham al-Fasi (died before 1026 CE), the Muslim conquest of Palestine brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on theTemple Mount.[32]
With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towardsChalcis, which was strategically the most significant Byzantine fort. Through Chalcis the Byzantines would be able to guardAnatolia, Heraclius' homeland ofArmenia, and the regional capital,Antioch. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid with his mobile guard towards Chalcis. The virtually impregnable fort was guarded by Greek troops underMenas, reportedly second in prestige only to the Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics, decided to face Khalid and destroy the leading elements of Muslim army before the main body could join them atHazir 5 kilometres (3 mi) east of Chalcis. The resultingBattle of Hazir even reportedly forced Umar to praise Khalid's military genius, saying, "Khalid is truly the commander. May Allah have mercy upon Abu Bakr. He was a better judge of men than I have been."[33]
Abu Ubaidah soon joined Khalid at Chalcis, which surrendered some time in June. With this strategic victory, the territory north of Chalcis lay open to the Muslims. Khalid and Abu Ubaidah continued their march northward and laidsiege to Aleppo, which was captured after fierce resistance from desperate Byzantine troops in October. Before marching towards Antioch, Khalid and Abu Ubaidah decided to isolate the city from Anatolia. They accordingly sent detachments north to eliminate all possible Byzantine forces and captured the garrison town ofAzaz, 50 kilometres (30 mi) from Aleppo; from there Muslims attacked Antioch from the eastern side, resulting in theBattle of Iron bridge. The Byzantine army, composed of the survivors of Yarmouk and other Syrian campaigns, was defeated, retreating to Antioch, whereupon the Muslims besieged the city. Having little hope of help from the Emperor, Antioch surrendered on 30 October, on the condition that all Byzantine troops would be given safe passage to Constantinople. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid towards the north and he himself marched to the south and capturedTartus,Jablah, and finallyLatakia and the coastal areas west of theAnti-Lebanon Mountains. Khalid moved north and raided territory up to as far asKızılırmak River in Anatolia. Emperor Heraclius had already left Antioch forEdessa before the Muslims arrived. He then arranged for the necessary defenses inJazirah andArmenia and left forConstantinople. On the way, he had a narrow escape when Khalid, who had justcaptured Marash, was heading south towardsManbij. Heraclius hastily took the mountainous path and, on passing through theCilician gates, is reported to have said, "Farewell, a long farewell to Syria, my fair province. Thou art an infidel's (enemy's) now. Peace be with you, O, Syria – what a beautiful land you will be for the enemy hands."[34]
After the devastating defeat at Yarmouk, the remainder of the Byzantine empire was left vulnerable. With few military resources left, it was no longer in a position to attempt a military comeback in Syria. To gain time to prepare a defense of the rest of his empire, Heraclius needed the Muslims occupied in Syria. He thus sought help from the Christians (some of whom were Arabs) ofJazirah, mainly fromCircesium andHīt, who mustered a large army and marched againstEmesa, Abu Ubaidah's headquarters. Abu Ubaidah withdrew all his forces from northern Syria to Emesa, and the Christians laid in a siege. Khalid was in favor of an open battle outside the fort, but Abu Ubaidah referred the matter to Umar, who sent a detachment from Iraq to invade Jazirah from three different routes. Another detachment was sent to Emesa from Iraq underQa’qa ibn Amr, a veteran of Yarmouk, who had originally been sent to Iraq for theBattle of al-Qādisiyyah. Umar himself marched from Medina with 1,000 men.
In 638, Muslims attackedHīt, which they found to be well fortified; thus, they left a fraction of the army to impose a siege on the city, while the rest went afterCircesium.[35] When the Christians received the news of the Muslim invasion of their homeland, they abandoned the siege and hastily withdrew there. At this point Khalid and his mobile guard came out of the fort and devastated their army by attacking them from the rear. In late 638, Ibn Walid alsocaptured Germanicia.
On the orders of Umar, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, commander of the Muslim army in Iraq, sent an army underIyad ibn Ghanm to conquer the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates up toUrfa. In 639–640,Raqqa fell into Muslim hands,[36] followed by most of Jazirah, the last base of the Eastern Roman Empire in the region, which surrendered peacefully and agreed to pay Jizya.
The conquest of Jazirah was completed by 640 CE, after which Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm (conqueror of Jazirah) to invade Byzantine territory north of there. They marched independently and capturedEdessa,Amida,Melitene (Malatya) and the whole of Armenia up toArarat and raided northern and central Anatolia. Heraclius had already abandoned all the forts between Antioch andTartus to create a buffer zone between the Muslim controlled areas and Anatolia.
Umar then called a halt to the expedition and ordered Abu Ubaidah, now governor of Syria, to consolidate his rule there. This decision can be explained by the dismissal of Khalid from the army, which ended his military career, and a drought followed by a plague the year after.
During the reign ofCaliph Uthman,Constantine III decided to recapture theLevant, which had been lost to the Muslims during Umar's reign.[37] A full-scale invasion was planned and a large force was sent to reconquer Syria.Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, called for reinforcements and Uthman ordered the governor ofKufa to send a contingent, which, together with the local garrison, defeated the Byzantine army in Northern Syria.
In 645–646, Sufyan bin Mujib Al-Azdi, appointed by Muawiyah, managed to seizeTripoli to eventually capture the last Byzantine stronghold on the Levantine coast.[38]
Uthman gave permission to Muawiyah to build a navy. From their base in Syria, the Muslims used this fleet to captureCyprus in 649,Crete, andRhodes. Annual raids into western Anatolia dissuaded the Byzantines from further attempts to recapture Syria.[37] In 654–655, Uthman ordered the preparation of an expedition to captureConstantinople, but, due to unrest in the caliphate that resulted in hisassassination in 655, the expedition was delayed for decades, only to beattempted unsuccessfully under theUmayyads.
The new rulers divided Syria into four districts (junds):Jund Dimashq (Damascus),Jund Hims,Jund al-Urdunn (Jordan), andJund Filastin (Palestine) (to which a fifth,Jund Qinnasrin, was later added)[39] and the Arabgarrisons were kept apart in camps. The Muslims tolerated the Jews and Christians. The taxes instituted were thekharaj, which landowners and peasants paid according to the productivity of their fields, and thejizya, paid by non-Muslims in return for state protection and exemption from military service. The Byzantine civil service was retained until a new system could be instituted; therefore, Greek remained the administrative language in the new Muslim territories for over 50 years after the conquests[citation needed].
When the firstcivil war broke out in the Muslim empire as a result of themurder ofUthman and the nomination ofAli as caliph, the Rashidun Caliphate was succeeded by theUmayyad dynasty[citation needed], with Syria as its core and Damascus its capital for the next century to come.