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Wisdom without a teacher (Chinese: 無師智, pinyin: wúshīzhì; Japanese: 無師独悟, mushi-dokugo,Skt. svayaṃbhūjñāna anācāryaka), sometimes also called "self-enlightened and self-certified" (Jp: jigo-jishō (自悟自証), is a term used inZen Buddhism to refer to the experience of a Zen practitioner reaching enlightenment (bodhi) orkensho without the aid of a master or teacher.[1][2][3][4]
The idea of wisdom without a teacher is often considered suspect among various Zen schools, like in the modern JapaneseSōtō school.William Bodiford writes that since the risk of self-delusion is high, it is common for Zen disciples to rely on their teacher to "authenticate and formally acknowledge" their enlightenment experience.[5] In spite of this, there have been Zen masters throughout history that have claimed to have awakened without the aid of a teacher and to not have required a teacher to confirm their awakening. This phenomenon is often related to criticisms of Zen institutions, especially the institutions ofdharma transmission and transmission certificates.[6][7]
Mushi-dokugo (無師独悟) is a Japanese term composed of four Chinese characters, orkanji, meaning "independent realization without a master." The charactermu (無) means "without" or "no",shi (師) means "master" or "teacher",doku (独) means "independent" or "alone", andgo (悟) means "realization" or "understanding" (satoru), also translated as "enlightenment" (satori). When strung together, the characters literally read, "no (無) master (師) independent (独) understanding (悟)." The equivalent Chinese pronunciation iswúshī dúwù.
The idea that the Buddha awakened by himself without a teacher is found in theEarly Buddhist Texts. In theAriyapariyesanā Sutta for example the Buddha proclaims: "I have no teacher (Na me ācariyo atthi), There is no-one like me."[8]
A Sanskrit term which indicates a kind ofjñāna (knowledge) attained "through one's own power" (svayaṃbhū) "without anāchārya" (anācāryaka) appears in theLotus sutra, chapter 3, in a description of thebodhisattva vehicle in the section on the parable of the burning house. The relevant passage states:
There are other people, who, desiring the wisdom of the Omniscient One (sarvajña-jñāna), the wisdom of the buddhas (buddha-jñāna), the wisdom of the Self-generated One (svayaṃbhu-jñāna), wisdom without a teacher (anācāryaka jñāna), apply themselves to the teaching of the Tathāgata in order to understand the wisdom, powers and confidence of the Tathāgata (tathāgata-jñāna-bala-vaiśāradya), for the sake of the welfare and happiness of many people, out of compassion for the world, for the benefit, welfare and happiness of many people, both gods and men, for the sake of the parinirvāṇa of all beings. They are said to be those who, desiring the great vehicle (mahāyāna; tathāgatayāna), escape from the threefold world. Therefore, they are called bodhisattva-mahāsattvas.[9]
The term can also be found in theGaganagañjaparipṛccha which states, "The Lord, having awakened through his own power (svayaṃbhū), entered into the state of perfect awakening (abhisaṃbuddha) by himself (svayam) to all moments of existence without a teacher (anācāryakam)".[10] Likewise, the term "anācāryaka" also appears in theRatnagotravibhāga, in which it is listed as a quality of the wisdom (jñāna) of the Buddha's attainment of Buddhahood. The Buddha is described as having "perfectly cognized its [Buddhahood's] unutterable nature by one-self (svayam), i.e. by means of self-born knowledge which needs no teacher."[11] The same text also explains how the Buddha's awakening is "not dependent on others" (aparapratyayabhisambodhi), "because it is realized through one's innate knowledge".[12]
A parallel term is the self- or masterless ordination (svāmaṃ/ svayambhūtva or anācāryaka upasampadā) in which a Buddhist monk ordains himself without a quorum of monks. The idea is found in Vasubandhu'sAbhidharmakoṣabhāṣya with reference to theVinaya (monastic rule). The term can also refer to taking thebodhisattva vow by oneself, an act which is discussed in theŚrīmālādevisiṃhanāda sūtra and in theBodhisattvabhūmi.[13]
In theLong Scroll (dubbed the "Bodhidharma Anthology" by Jeffrey Broughton), which contains the earliest known records ofChan, the iconoclasticMaster Yüan says, "If you do not seek the marvellous understanding, and do not take someone as a teacher, and do not take the Dharma as a teacher, one will naturally advance alone."[14] Perhaps the most famous example of this phenomenon in Chan is that of the sixth patriarchHuineng who, without any prior training or instruction, is said to have experienced awakening at a chance hearing of someone chanting theDiamond Sutra.[15] ThePlatform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch itself states that it is possible to awaken without a teacher:
If you can become enlightened yourself, don’t rely on external seeking—don’t think I’m saying you can only attain emancipation through [the help of] a spiritual compatriot other than yourself. This is not the case! Why? Within your own minds there is a spiritual compatriot [who will help you] become enlightened by yourself! If you activate the false and deluded, you will become all mixed up with false thoughts. Although some external spiritual compatriots may be teachers, they cannot save you. If you activate the correct and true and contemplate with prajñā, in a single instant [all your] false thoughts will be completely eradicated. If you recognize the self-nature, with a single [experience of] enlightenment you will attain the stage of buddhahood.[16]
TheXuemai lun 血脈論 (Bloodstream Sermon), attributed toBodhidharma though probably a product of theOxhead School,[17] while arguing that teacherless enlightenment is rare, nonetheless concedes, "If, though, by the conjunction of conditions, someone understands what the Buddha meant, that person doesn't need a teacher. Such a person has a natural awareness superior to anything taught."[18] Similarly, in theLengqie shizi ji 楞伽師資記 (Records of the Masters and Disciples of the Laṅkāvatāra), after explaining how one can understand the nature of things so that the mind becomes luminous and clear,Daoxin goes on to state, "This can be brought about by somebody teaching you, or you may attain liberation without ever having to be taught."[19][note 1][note 2]
During the Ming dynasty, important masters likeHanshan Deqing,Zibo Zhenke, andYunqi Zhuhong did not belong to any formal lineage.[22][23] According to Jiang Wu, these eminent Ming Chan monks emphasized self-cultivation while criticizing nominal forms of recognition (such as through dharma transmission documents).[24] As Stuart Lachs observes, of the famous "four eminent masters" of the Ming dynasty, three never obtained formal certificates of dharma transmission.[25][note 3] Wu writes that for such monks at this time:
...training through self-cultivation was encouraged, and nominal and formulaic instructions from pretentious masters were despised. Eminent monks, who practiced meditation and asceticism but without proper dharma transmission, were acclaimed as acquiring 'wisdom without teachers' (wushizhi), a laudable title for them but a misfortune in the eyes of the more orthodox Chan masters in later generations, for whom dharma transmission defined their identity as Chan monks in a certain lineage. The negative attitude toward the role of teacher can be seen from Hanshan Deqing’s perspective. Though never receiving dharma transmission, he was often asked to write prefaces to the records of transmission in some obscure lineages. His writings testify that although the practice of dharma transmission was revived, Hanshan Deqing questioned its value seriously. For him, the enlightenment of the mind was more important than the nominal claim of dharma transmission. Because true enlightenment experience was valued, a few self-proclaimed Chan masters in the late Ming gained reputations as eminent monks without acquiring dharma transmission.[23]
Examples can be found of monks during the Ming dynasty who relied on guidance from the scriptures in lieu of teachers.[note 4] For instance,Hanshan Deqing is said to have confirmed his own awakening through his reading of theŚūraṅgama Sūtra rather than the traditional method of relying on a master. Hanshan wrote that "After my great awakening, having no one to confirm and testify to it, I opened the Śūraṅgama Sūtra to verify my experience. I had not listened previously to lectures on this Sūtra and so did not know its meaning. Now by using the power of the direct reasoning of the nondiscriminating mind and without even the slightest use of its consciousness since there was no room for thinking, I gained after eight months a complete comprehension of its profound meaning without having a single doubt left."[27]
Similarly, the Ming Chan monk Hanyue Fazang (1573–1635) had an awakening as a young man but could not find any masters to confirm his experience. He turned to the writings of the Song dynasty masterJuefan Huihong (1071–1128), theLinji zongzhi and theZhizheng zhuan, and relying on these texts, was able to verify his awakening and even declared himself to be Huihong's heir, although the two men were separated by many centuries. This phenomenon, known as "transmission by remote succession", was common in the late Ming when masters were unable to find proper teachers.[28] Hanyue later wrote in hisGuiding Words on the Zhizheng zhuan, “from now on, people who attain enlightenment without a master (wushi ziwu 無師自悟) can use this text to verify their enlightenment (yuci zhengzhi 於此證之).”[29]
The Japanese Zen teacherNōnin (died 1196), founder of the Daruma school, is the earliest example ofmushi-dokugo inJapanese Zen. He is said to have declared himself to be a self-enlightened Zen master after abandoning the traditionalTendai establishment.[30][31]
Dōgen, the founder of theSōtō school of Japanese Zen, acknowledged in his lifetime that such a phenomenon exists. According to Hee-Jin Kim, "enlightenment-by-oneself, without a teacher(mushi-dokugo), [is] the ultimate Zen principle that every practitioner had to actualize, even while studying under competent teachers and reading the sutras for a number of years."[32] Independent, critical, reflective thinking as an integral part of meditation is mentioned in the fascicles of theShōbōgenzō.[32] That being said, Dōgen also wrote that dharma transmission through teacher-student relationships was necessary. The idea of mushi-dokugo is also discussed byKeizan. Regarding Keizan's position, Bernard Faure writes, "Keizan's attitude is ambiguous. Sometimes, like Dōgen in his hardly veiled criticism of the Darumashū, he insists on the importance of a face-to-face transmission between master and disciple, authenticated by a certificate of succession. At other times he seems to admit the possibility of 'awakening alone, without a master' (mushi dokugo), as Nōnin was said to have done."[33] In modern Sōtō Zen, dharma transmission (shiho) is considered necessary to be an authorized representative of the Sōtō school but it does not indicate one is enlightened.[web 1]
During theTokugawa period inJapan, there were a great many priests who proclaimed to be self-enlightened. According to Haskel, "one of the most striking features of early Tokugawa Zen is the number of celebrated priests who achieved realization on their own." These figures included "such notables as theMyōshin-ji masters Daigu, Ungo, Isshi and theSōtō priestSuzuki Shōsan."[34] The famous master of the periodTakuan Sōhō believed the Dharma need not depend on an unbroken transmission from master to disciple. LikeIkkyū before him, Takuan refused to recognize an heir and chose instead to cut off his line, insisting the Dharma was always available to be discovered within by the right person. He stated, "That which is the Dharma cannot be passed on" and "That which can be passed on is not the Dharma."[35] In a similar vein, the Tokugawa masterBankei destroyed his own dharma transmission certificate,[36] later expressing dissatisfaction with his teacher's level of attainment, feeling he had not grasped the full meaning of the unborn buddha mind.[37][38] Bankei wrote to a disciple that enlightenment did not require a teacher:
This Dharma isn't anything you can learn from someone else. Even if she did see me, it would not help. Please convey this message to her from me. [...] Everybody's mind is the Buddha Mind, which is originally enlightened, so it's not something that is "born" or that "dies"; it neither comes nor goes, but is eternal, unalterable buddhahood. Thus, it's not a matter of yourbecoming a buddha now for the first time since you'vebeen a buddha right from the start. That's why, instead of following other people's spiritual guidance, it's best to look to your own ordinary straightforward mind.[39]
The Tokugawa eraSōtō master Dokuan Genkō (1630–1698) was scathingly critical of the dharma transmission method which he called "paper Zen."[40] According to Dokuan, "what is called Zen enlightenment is not dependent on another’s enlightenment. It is only what you realize for yourself, attain for yourself, just as you know when you’ve eaten enough rice to satisfy your hunger, or drunk enough water to slake your thirst."[40] Dokuan's critique of the transmission system went as far as to claim that only those who were self-awakened actually had the wisdom of the Buddha:
In today’s Zen temples they transmit the robe and bowl [i.e., the symbols of the teacher’s transmission]; but while the name continues, the reality [of enlightenment] has long ceased to exist. Those who carry on the wisdom of the buddhas and patriarchs rely on themselves, being enlightened independently, without a teacher; so that even though the name has ceased, the reality itself continues.[41]
Important Korean masters likeWŏnhyo andJinul could also be seen as examples. Wŏhnyo is famously known for his awakening experience after accidentally drinking water from a skull one night while staying in a dark cave during his travels on his way to China in order to seek the Dharma.[42] Upon having this experience, Wŏnhyo understood that all phenomena were created by mind, and he subsequently concluded that there was no need for him to go on seeking the Dharma in China.[43] In the case of Jinul, he neither received transmission from a recognized Sŏn master nor did he ever enter into an extended formal relationship with a teacher.[44] According to Buswell, Jinul's relationship with his preceptor "does not seem to have been especially close," and his intellect and preference for solitude led him to focus on self-study of the scriptures.[45] Buswell observes that, Jinul, having never had a permanent teacher, "made up for the lack of personal instruction by drawing inspiration from the Buddhist scriptures. In the spirit of self-reliance that is central to Buddhism, he took responsibility for his own spiritual development and followed the path of practice outlined in the scriptures and confirmed through his own Sŏn meditation. Chinul's progress in Buddhist practice was, therefore, based on using scriptural instructions to perfect formal Sŏn practice."[46]
More recently, the Korean Sŏn masterDaehaeng, founder of the One Mind Sŏn Center, is said to have awakened by herself without instructions from a teacher. According to Pori Park, Daehaeng "awakened herself through many years of ascetic practices rather than through teachers or going through formal Buddhist training."[47]
The modern Vietnamese masterThích Thanh Từ is known as one of the most respected Vietnamese Zen teachers in all of Vietnam. He is famously known to have achieved an enlightenment experience through his own efforts without a Zen teacher. Trang T.D. Nguyen writes: "Thích Thanh Từ is considered the founder and the highest master of contemporary Vietnamese Thiền Tông. This is despite the fact that he has not been trained in meditation by any teacher or received the “mind transmission” in any Chan zong/Thiền Tông school. Paradoxically, this does not affect his status of a “Zen master”, and his followers respect him in particular because he is believed to have discovered the path on his own, just as the Buddha did."[2]
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