Musa ibn Nusayr | |
|---|---|
| Umayyad governor ofIfriqiya | |
| In office 703–715 | |
| Monarchs | Abd al Malik Al-Walid I |
| Preceded by | Hassan ibn al-Nu'man |
| Succeeded by | Muhammad ibn Yazid |
| Personal details | |
| Born | c. 640 |
| Died | 716 |
| Relations | Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ibn Musa ibn Nusayr (grandson) |
| Children |
|
| Parent | Nusayr |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance | Umayyad Caliphate |
| Battles/wars | |
Musa ibn Nusayr (Arabic:موسى بن نصيرMūsá bin Nuṣayr;c. 640 – c. 716) was anArab general and governor who served under theUmayyad caliphsAbd al-Malik andAl-Walid I. He ruled over the Muslim province ofIfriqiya, and directed theIslamic conquest of theMaghreb as well as theVisigothic Kingdom that controlled theIberian Peninsula and part of what is now southern France (Septimania).
Various suggestions have been made as to his ancestry. Some say his father belonged to theLakhmid clan of semi-nomads who lived east of theEuphrates and were allies of theSassanians,[1] while others claim he belonged to theBanu Bakr confederation.[2] One account stated that Musa's father was taken captive after the fall of the Mesopotamian city ofAyn al-Tamr (633). According to this account, he was an Arab Christian who was one of a number being held hostage there. However,al-Baladhuri, relating the same events,[3] states he was an Arab of theBalī tribe, from Jabal al-Jalīl in Palestine.[4]
As a slave, Musa's father entered the service ofAbd al-Aziz ibn Marwan (governor of Egypt and son of the caliphMarwan I) who gave him his freedom.[5] He returned to Syria where Musa was born at a place called Kafarmara or Kafarmathra.[6] The date of his birth has been given as 640.[7]
Musa was made co-governor ofIraq by the caliphAbd al-Malik, together with the caliph's brotherBishr ibn Marwan. There was some quarrel over missing tax money, and Musa was given the choice: pay a huge fine, or pay with his head. His father's patron,Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan, had a high opinion of Musa, and paid the ransom;[8] he was later responsible for appointing Musa to be governor ofIfriqiya.
Hasan ibn al-Nu'man was sent to continue the Islamic conquest in North Africa all the way toMorocco. He was relieved of his command for allowing continuingByzantine attacks. Musa bin Nusayr was then sent to renew the attacks against the Berbers. But he did not impose Islam by force, rather, he respected Berber traditions and used diplomacy in subjugating them. This proved highly successful, as many Berbers converted to Islam and even entered his army as soldiers and officers,[9][dead link][citation needed] possibly includingTariq bin Ziyad[10] who would lead the later Islamic expedition in Iberia.
In 698, Musa was made the governor ofIfriqiya and was responsible for completing theconquest of North Africa and of the Balearic Islands and Sardinia. He was the first governor ofIfriqiya not to be subordinate to the governor of Egypt. He was the first Muslim general to takeTangiers and occupy it;[11] his troops also conquered theSous, effectively taking control of all of the northern half ofMorocco. He also had to deal with constant attacks from theByzantine navy and he built a navy that would go on to conquer the islands ofIbiza,Majorca, andMenorca.[citation needed]
(Note: Most of what follows in this section is to be found first in Ibn Abd al-Hakam, then repeated by others, e.g. theAkhbār majmūʿa, with more detail but little real variation.)
Muslim and Christian sources quote that while Musa bin Nusayr was eager to cross theStraits of Gibraltar to Hispania, he determined to do so only when a Visigoth nobleman,Julian, Count of Ceuta, had encouraged him to invade Iberia, telling him of the people's sufferings and the injustice of their king,Roderic, while giving him cause for conquest by telling him of the riches that would be found, and of the many palaces, gardens and beauties of Hispania. Legend tells that Julian wished for the fall of the Visigothic kingdom because his daughter,Florinda la Cava, had been raped by Roderic.[12][13]
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After ordering a successful reconnaissance raid with 400 soldiers on the Spanish coast atTarifa where the raiding force returned with a booty captured without any reported resistance, Musa decided to launch a larger invasion force, ordering his lieutenantTariq bin Ziyad to cross the strait with approximately 7,000 Berbers and Arabs, and landed atGibraltar (from Jebel Tariq, meaning Tariq's mountain in Arabic).[14] The expedition's purpose must have been to conduct further raids and explore the territory. Tariq's army contained some guides supplied by Julian. Three weeks after his landing, the Muslims were faced with a superior Visigoth royal army of 100,000 troops under Roderic.[15] The Muslims won theBattle of Guadalete, and the entire Visigoth nobility was all but exterminated at the battle. The Muslims then marched towards Córdoba, bypassing several strong fortifications. The well-defended city fell, and Tariq established a garrison there consisting mainly of the city's Jews who welcomed the invaders, having been subjected to conversion from the Visigoths for centuries. Tariq then continued on his way toToledo.
Musa, learning of Tariq's successes, landed in Iberia with an army of 18,000 Arabs and Berbers. He planned to rendezvous with Tariq at Toledo, but first proceeded to takeSeville, which Tariq had bypassed, and where Musa met stiff resistance, and succeeded after three months of siege. He then campaigned in the province ofLusitania, eliminating the remaining Gothic resistance there. His last destination before meeting Tariq was to subdueMérida, capital of Lusitania. After five months of siege and inconclusive fighting, a group ofCeutans pretended to be Christian reinforcements and managed to convince the guards into opening the gates. Once inside, the "reinforcements", nearly 700, overwhelmed the guards and managed to keep the gates open for the Muslims to enter the city and capture it.
After Mérida, Musa divided his forces, taking the majority with him to meet Tariq at Toledo where he would remain for winter. The remainder of his forces were led by his son 'Abd al-Aziz, who would return to Seville to deal with an uprising. 'Abd al-Aziz made short work of the rebellion. He then conducted several campaigns on the return journey in the territories of Lusitania.Coimbra andSantarém were captured in the spring of 714. 'Abd al-Aziz then campaigned inMurcia. The Duke of Murcia,Theodemir, or Tudmir as he was called by the Muslims, surrendered to 'Abd al-Aziz after several hard-fought engagements in April 713. The terms imposed on Theodemir declared that the duke would keep the citadel ofOrihuela and several other settlements, includingAlicante andLorca on the Mediterranean, that his followers will not be killed, taken prisoner, forced into Islam, and that their churches will not be burned. It also demanded that Theodemir not encourage or support others to resist the Muslims, and that he and every citizen of his dominion pay an annual tax in money and other goods.
Musa finally met up with Tariq where there was an argument over the latter's booty, which reportedly included a gold table covered with gems and other precious stones that had reputedly once belonged toSolomon.[16] Meanwhile, Musa's messenger,Mughith al-Rumi (the Roman) who had been sent to Caliphal-Walid I to inform him of the situation in Hispania, had returned. The Caliph requested Musa to withdraw and to report in person toDamascus. Musa chose to ignore this order temporarily, knowing that if he did not continue his advance, Visigoth resistance may increase and turn the tables against the Muslims. Having done so, he continued with Tariq to the north; Musa heading forZaragoza, to which he lay siege, while Tariq continued to the provinces ofLeón and Castile, capturing the towns ofLeón andAstorga. Musa continued after taking Zaragoza to the north, takingOviedo and reaching as far as theBay of Biscay. The Islamic conquest of Iberia now complete, Musa proceeded to place governors and prefects throughout the newly conqueredAl-Andalus, before returning to Damascus with most of the booty captured from the Jihad.
Both conquerors of Spain were therefore summoned by the caliph to Damascus. Tariq arrived first, according to some accounts. But then the caliph was taken ill. So the caliph's brother,Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik became temporarily in charge, and asked Musa, who was arriving with a cavalcade of soldiers and spoils, to delay his grand entry into the city. He most certainly intended to claim the glories brought from the conquest for himself. But Musa dismissed this request, triumphantly entered Damascus anyway, and brought the booty before the ailingAl-Walid I, which brought Musa and Tariq unprecedented popularity amongst the people of Damascus.Al-Walid I then died a few days later and was succeeded by his brother Sulayman, who demanded that Musa deliver up all his spoils. When Musa complained, Sulayman stripped him of his rank and confiscated all the booty, including the table which had reputedly once belonged toSolomon.
One of Musa's sons,Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, marriedEgilona who was wife ofRoderic. She asked 'Abd al-Aziz why his guests did not bow to him as they used to do in the presence of his father. It was reported that he began to force guests to bow to him. It was rumoured that he had secretly become a Christian, and a group of Arabs assassinated him, cut off his head and sent it to the caliph. Sulayman had Musa in his audience when the head arrived, and seeing whose it was, callously asked Musa if he recognized it. Musa maintained his dignity, saying he recognized it as belonging to someone who had always practiced the faith fervently, and cursed the men who had killed him.[17] Another son, Abd Allah, who had acted as governor ofIfriqiya after Musa, was executed on the orders of the caliph on suspicion of having had killed the man who had replaced him.[18]
Musa died naturally while on theHajj pilgrimage with Sulayman in about the year 715–716. Because of his disgrace, and the misfortunes of his sons, there was a tendency among medieval historians of theMaghreb to attribute his deeds (the conquest ofTangiers and theSous) toUqba ibn Nafi.[19]
The Moroccan peakJebel Musa is named for Musa bin Nusayr according to the 14th-century Berber Muslim geographerIbn Battuta.[20]
Al-Bakri in hisal-Maslik wa al-Mamalik, mentions that Musa Ibn Nusayr was buried inZaragoza.[21]
Less than 200 years after his death, Musa ibn Nusayr became the subject of fantastic legends. These tales were first recorded in the late 9th or early 10th century byibn al-Faqih, who wrote that Musa was ordered by the caliph to investigate reports of a strange city called al-Baht.[22] Musa marched fromQayrawan to the deserts of Spain and came upon a city that was surrounded by walls with no entrance. Those who attempted to look over the wall became entranced and jumped, laughing deliriously. Musa then proceeded to a nearby lake, which contained copper jars. When opened, a genie emerged from each one.
A more extensive version of the same legend is recorded in "The City of Brass," a tale inOne Thousand and One Nights, in which Musa encounters many other marvels, such as a palace filled with jewels, whose only human occupant was the embalmed corpse of a beautiful woman, guarded by two robot warriors.[23]
The 17th-century historianIbn Abi Dinar used Musa's decline in fortune as an object lesson in the vagaries of human existence, with some exaggerations: "Musa, who had conquered half the inhabited world, who had acquired so many riches, died in poverty, begging alms from passers-by, after having been abandoned by the last of his servants. Overcome by shame and misery, he wished for death, and God gave it to him. I only mention the details of Musa's death to give my contemporaries, who are poorly read, a striking example of the vicissitudes of human life."[24]
Probably the most extensive work to be inspired by the life of Musa is a section of the anonymousKitāb al-imāma w'as-siyāsa, which contains a lengthy description of his deeds accompanied by many supposed speeches and sayings. Unlike many other authors, such asIbn Abd al-Hakam, the work is entirely favourable to Musa.[25]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)reconnaissance raid for the governor of the Arab province of Ifriqiyah , Musa ibn Nusayr . The success of this raid prompted Musa to order his lieutenant Tariq ibn Ziyad to launch an attack
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)| Preceded by | Governor of Ifriqiya 703–715 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Governor of Al-Andalus 712–714 | Succeeded by |
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