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v t e

Multi-speed Europe ortwo-speed Europe (called alsovariable geometry Europe orcore Europe depending on the form it would take in practice) is the idea that different parts of theEuropean Union shouldintegrate at different levels and pace depending on the political situation in each individual country. Indeed, multi-speed Europe is currently a reality, with only a subset of EU countries being members of theeurozone and of theSchengen area. Like other forms ofdifferentiatedintegration such asà la carte andvariable geometry, "multi-speed Europe" arguably aims to salvage the "widening and deepening of the European Union" in the face ofpolitical opposition.

The concept entered political discourse when, after the end of the Cold War, an eastward enlargement of the European Union began to materialise and the question arose how "widening" could be made compatible with "deepening",^[1] i.e., how the imminent enlargement process could be prevented from diluting the idea of an "ever closer union among the peoples of Europe", as the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community of 1957 had put it. In 1994 – still at a time of theEU12 – the GermanChristian DemocratsWolfgang Schäuble andKarl Lamers published a document^[2] in which they called for aKerneuropa (= core Europe). This idea envisaged that "core Europe" would have a "centripetal effect", a magnetic attraction for the rest of Europe. A precursor to that concept had been a proposal by two advisors to German ChancellorHelmut Kohl,Michael Mertes and Norbert J. Prill, published as early as July 1989. Mertes and Prill called for aconcentric circles Europe, built around a federal core consisting of theInner Six (EU6) and like-minded EU member states.^[3] In 1994 they partly revoked their original idea, arguing that the post-Cold War EU would rather look like a "Europe of Olympic rings" than a "Europe of concentric circles".^[4]

Themulti-speed Europe concept has been debated for years in European political circles, as a way to solve some institutional issues. The concept is that the more members there are in the Union, the more difficult it becomes to reach consensus on various topics, and the less likely it is that all would advance at the same pace in various fields.

Intermediate forms could be limited to some areas of close cooperation, as some historical examples are given below. It is also possible now for a minimum of nine EU member states to useenhanced co-operation, but this new framework has been used only once. A second proposal, a unified European patent, is nearing completion [as of December 2010] with only two countries (Italy and Spain) not participating.^[5]

The idea of a multi-speed Europe has been revived because of the following initiatives:

• theeurozone, with 20 member states and two more inERM II (Bulgaria andDenmark). EveryEU member except Denmark has agreed by treaty to join, butmany currently have no plans to do so.
• theSchengen Area, with 29 member states, 25 EU members and four non-EU members (Iceland,Liechtenstein,Norway, andSwitzerland). It excludes two EU members:Cyprus, which is legally obligated to join in the future, andIreland, which has anopt-out from participating.
• other initiatives limited to some states, such as theEuropean Defence initiative andPrüm Convention.

Furthermore, important events were:

• the enlargement of theEuropean Union to 28 member-states and in the forthcoming years other candidates (Albania,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Georgia,Kosovo,Moldova,Montenegro,North Macedonia,Serbia,Turkey,Ukraine) where new members initially don't join the Schengen area and the Eurozone for some time.
• theEuropean Convention that led to theEuropean Constitution that was signed in 2004 by the 25 Heads of State, but was not ratified by all national parliaments or assemblies and so failed. Later most of its provisions were adopted through theTreaty of Lisbon that included additionalopt-outs for some states.
• differences of view between EU members on some foreign diplomatic and military issues. In a 2004 articleThe Economist compared the variances of Europe to a lake that has many deep parts (areas in which countries are similar) and many shallow parts (areas in which countries have major differences).^[6]

AnEuler diagram showing the relationships between various multinational European organisations and agreements

• v
• t
• e

Currently in the EU there are the following cases of non-uniform application of theEuropean Union law:

Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Slovenia participate in all EU provisions.

Participant	European Union Agreements				Enhanced cooperation				PESCO	Open method of coordination	Related Intergovernmental treaties			Symbols
	Schengen	AFSJ	CFR	Euro	Patent	Divorce	Int. couples' property	EPPO		Euro+	SRM	ESM	Prüm
Bulgaria	x	x	x	c	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	o	x	x
Croatia	x	x	x	x	o	o	x	x	x	o	x	x	o	o
Cyprus	c	x	x	x	x	o	x	x	x	x	x	x	o	x
Czech Republic	x	x	x	c	x	o	x	x	x	o	x	o	o	o
Denmark	x	o	x	o	x	o	o	o	x	x	c	o	o	o
Estonia	x	x	x	x	x	x	o	x	x	x	x	x	x	o
Finland	x	x	x	x	x	o	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	o
Greece	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	c	x
Hungary	x	x	x	c	x	x	o	o	x	o	x	o	x	x
Ireland	o	o	x	x	x	o	o	o	x	x	x	x	o	o
Italy	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	c	x
Latvia	x	x	x	x	x	x	o	x	x	x	x	x	o	o
Lithuania	x	x	x	x	x	x	o	x	x	x	x	x	o	x
Malta	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	o	x	x	x	o	x
Netherlands	x	x	x	x	x	o	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	o
Poland	x	x	o	c	x	o	o	x	x	x	c	o	o	o
Portugal	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	c	x
Romania	x	x	x	c	x	x	o	x	x	x	x	o	x	x
Slovakia	x	x	x	x	x	o	o	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Spain	x	x	x	x	o	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Sweden	x	x	x	c	x	o	x	x	x	o	o	o	c	o
x  – Member  c  – Candidate (or conditions to be fulfilled before joining)  o  – Non-member

A small group of EU member states have joined all European treaties, instead of opting out on some. They drive the development of a federal model for the European integration. This is linked to the concept of Multi-speed Europe where some countries would create a core union; and goes back to theInner Six references to the founding member states of theEuropean Communities.

At present, the formation of a formal Core Europe Federation ("a federation within the confederation") has been held off at every occasion where such a federation treaty had been discussed.^{[citation needed]} Instead, supranational institutions are created that govern more areas in "Inner Europe" than existing European integration provides for.

Among the 27 EU state members, 18 states have signed all integration agreements: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Finland, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain. The agreements considered include the fifth stage of economic integration orEMU, theSchengen agreement, and theArea of freedom, security and justice (AFSJ).

Thus, among the 27 EU countries, 20 have joined the Eurozone, 25 have joined Schengen, and also 25 have no opt-outs under AFSJ.

Further, some countries which do not belong to the EU have joined several of these initiatives, albeit sometimes at a lower stage such as theCustoms Union, theCommon Market (EEA), or even unilaterally adopting the euro, and by taking part inSchengen, either as a signatory state, orde facto.

Thus, 6 non-EU countries have adopted the euro (4 through an agreement with the EU and 2 unilaterally), and 4 non-EU states have joined the Schengen agreement officially.

The following table shows the status of each state membership to the different agreements promoted by the EU. It lists 47 countries, including the 27 EU member states, 9 candidate states, 3 members of theEEA and Switzerland, Kosovo which has applied for membership, 4 microstates, and the United Kingdom and Armenia as special cases.

Hence, this table summarises some components of EU laws applied in most European states. Some territories of EU member states also have aspecial status in regard to EU laws applied. Some territories of EFTA member states also have aspecial status in regard to EU laws applied as is the case with someEuropean microstates. For member states that do not have special-status territories the EU law applies fully with the exception of theopt-outs in the European Union andstates under a safeguard clause or alternatively some states participate inenhanced co-operation between a subset of the EU members. Additionally, there are various examples of non-participation by some EU members and non-EU states participation in particularAgencies of the European Union, the programmes forEuropean Higher Education Area,European Research Area andErasmus Mundus.

European Union Agreements

State	Map	EU	EEA	Customs Union	Schengen	EMU (Euro)	AFSJ
Austria		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Belgium		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Croatia		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Estonia		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Finland		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
France		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Germany		Yes[7]	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Greece		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Italy		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Latvia		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Lithuania		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Luxembourg		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Malta		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Netherlands		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Portugal		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Slovakia		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Slovenia		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Spain		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Bulgaria		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	ERM II	Yes
Czech Republic		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Yes
Hungary		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Yes
Poland		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	CFR partial opt-out
Romania		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Yes
Sweden		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Yes
Cyprus		Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Yes	Yes
Denmark		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Opt-out,ERM II	Opt-out
Ireland		Yes	Yes	Yes	Opt-out,Visa Free	Yes	Opt-out (Opt-in)
Liechtenstein		No	Yes	No (Swiss-Liecht CU)	Yes	No	No
Norway		Applications withdrawn[8]	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
Iceland		Applications withdrawn[9]	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
Switzerland		Application withdrawn[10]	Bilateral treaties[11]	No (Swiss-Liecht CU)	Yes	No	No
Albania		Candidate	No,EC,ECAA	No	No,Visa Free	No	No
Bosnia and Herzegovina		Candidate	No,EC,ECAA	No	No,Visa Free	No	No
Georgia		Candidate	No,EC,ECAA	No	No,Visa Free	No	No
Moldova		Candidate	No,EC,ECAA	No	No,Visa Free	No	No
Montenegro		Candidate	No,EC,ECAA	No	No,Visa Free	Unilaterally adopted	No
North Macedonia		Candidate	No,EC,ECAA	No	No,Visa Free	No	No
Serbia		Candidate	No,EC,ECAA	No	No,Visa Free	No	No
Turkey		Candidate	No	Customs Union[Note 1]	No	No	No
Ukraine		Candidate	No,EC,ECAA	No	No,Visa Free	No	No
Andorra		No	No	Customs Union[Note 1]	No,Visa Free	Yes[Note 2]	No
Monaco		No	No	de facto, with France	de facto, with France	Yes[Note 2]	No
San Marino		No	No	Customs Union[Note 1]	Open border	Yes[Note 2]	No
Vatican City		No	No	No	Open border	Yes[Note 2]	No
Kosovo		Applicant, SAA signed	No,EC,ECAA	No	No,Visa Free	Unilaterally adopted	No
Armenia		No (CEPA signed)	No,EC,ECAA	No	No	No	No
United Kingdom		No (withdrew)	No (withdrew)	No	No,Visa Free	No	No

Notes:

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A number of countries have special relations to the European Union implementing many of its regulations. Prominently there are Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and Liechtenstein which are the only remaining EFTA members while all other former EFTA members have converted into EU members. Through agreements Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein (not including Switzerland) are members of theEuropean Economic Area since 1994. As a consequence of taking part in the EU single market they need to adopt part of theLaw of the European Union. Formally they would not need to fund the EU government^{[citation needed]} but in practice they have opted to take on their part of financing EU institutions as required by EU law (seeEEA and Norway Grants) with the financial footprint of Norway being equal to that of an EU member since 2009.^{[citation needed]} Especially Norway and Iceland are known to forfeit EU membership on the basis ofEU fishery regulations that they want to opt out on. Both Norway and Iceland have signed and implemented the Schengen zone agreements from the start. During the turmoils of the financial crisis, Iceland was looking into membership of the Eurozone and it did apply for EU membership in 2009. Norway has joined all EU political treaties^[vague] and it has applied to EU membership multiple times but while fulfilling the requirements the membership was rejected by referendums in 1972 and 1994. This leaves Norway to be integrated into Inner Europe's institutions while not being part their governing body.

Participant	EU	OSCE	CoE	Schengen	Euro	EUCU	EEA	Energy Community	ECT	ECAA	EEA	EMCDDA	EMSA	EASA	ERA	EDA	ESA	Prüm	NATO
Albania	c[b]	x	x					x	x	x									x
Andorra		x	x	s	s	x
Armenia		x	x					o	x	x
Austria	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Azerbaijan		x	x						x
Belarus		x							x
Belgium	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Bosnia and Herzegovina	c	x	x					x	x	x
Bulgaria	x	x	x	x	c	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		x	x
Croatia	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		o	x
Cyprus	x	x	x	c	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		o
Czech Republic	x	x	x	x	c	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	o	x
Denmark	x	x	x	x		x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	o	x
Estonia	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Finland	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
France	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Georgia	c	x	x					x	x	x
Germany	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Greece	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	c	x
Hungary	x	x	x	x	c	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Iceland		x	x	x			x		x	x	x		x	x				x	x
Ireland	x	x	x		x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	o
Italy	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	c	x
Kazakhstan		x							x
Kosovo	c[c]				x[d]			x		x
Latvia	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		o	x
Liechtenstein		x	x	x			x		x		x			x				x
Lithuania	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		o	x
Luxembourg	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Malta	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		o
Moldova	c	x	x					x	x	x
Monaco		x	x	s	s	x
Montenegro	c[b]	x	x		x[d]			x	x	x									x
Netherlands	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
North Macedonia	c[b]	x	x					x	x	x									x
Norway		x	x	x			x	o	x	x	x	x	x	x			x	x	x
Poland	x	x	x	x	c	x	x	x		x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	o	x
Portugal	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	c	x
Romania	x	x	x	x	c	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Russia		x
San Marino		x	x	s	s	x
Serbia	c[b]	x	x					x		x
Slovakia	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		x	x
Slovenia	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x		x	x
Spain	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Sweden	x	x	x	x	c	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	c	x
Switzerland		x	x	x					x		x			x			x	x
Turkey	c[e]	x	x			x		o	x		x	x							x
Ukraine	c	x	x					x	x	x
United Kingdom		x	x						x								x		x
Vatican City		x	o	s

x – member
c – conditions to be fulfilled before joining
s – unilateral adoption/participation through another state who is a member/some instruments signed, but not yet ratified
o – observer

This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(June 2022)

In March 2017,European CommissionpresidentJean-Claude Juncker released a five-point view of possible courses for the EC and its to-be-27 post-Brexit members, looking forward to the year 2025. The points, among which Juncker expressed no preference, "range from standing down from policing of government financing of companies, for example, to a broader pullback that would essentially strip the EU back to being merely a single market", per one report.The updated possibilities would entail member countries or groups of countries adopting different levels of participation with the union. The EC was approaching a March meeting of the 27 members in Rome and Juncker's paper addressed the options that "once invited scorn from convincedEurophiles" and seemed maybe even to have some backing "of lifelongfederalists" like the president.^[16]

• Agencies of the European Union – different examples of non-EU states participation and non-participation of some EU members
• Differentiated integration
• Enhanced co-operation
• European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
• European integration
• Euroscepticism
• Eurosphere
• Federal Europe
• Inner Six
• Mechanism for Cooperation and Verification
• Opt-outs in the European Union
• Open Balkan
• Pro-Europeanism

• Official EU glossary: Multi-speed Europe, Variable geometry Europe and other related concepts

• Multi-speed Europe
• History of European integration

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