Muhammad in Mecca
c. 570 – 622 AD
Year of the Elephant First Islamic state
Location	Hejaz,Arabian Peninsula
Including	Mawlid Marriage withKhadija First revelation Year of Sorrow Isra and Mi'raj Hijra
Key events	Emergence of Islam

According to writers ofAl-Sīra al-NabawiyyaMuhammad, the finalIslamicprophet, was born and lived in Mecca for the first 53 years of his life (c. 570–622 CE) until theHijra. This period of his life is characterized by his proclamation ofprophethood. Muhammad's father,Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, died before he was born. His mother would raise him until he was six years old, before her death around 577 CE atAbwa'. Subsequently raised by his grandfather,Abd al-Muttalib, and then his uncle,Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, Muhammad's early career involved being a shepherd and merchant. Muhammad marriedKhadija bint Khuwaylid after a successful trading endeavour inSyria. After the death of Khadija and Abu Talib in theYear of Sorrow, Muhammad marriedSawdah bint Zam'a andAisha.

Muslims believe Muhammadbegan receiving revelation sometime in the year 610 CE. Initially, the ranks of the Muslims only included Muhammad and some of his close friends and relatives. However, as more members of theQuraysh and otherArab tribes respected his words andaccepted his message, the vast majority of them, including tribal leaders and some of his relatives, such asAbū Lahab, opposed, ridiculed and eventually boycotted his clan, theBanu Hashim, and Muhammad and his followers were harassed, assaulted and forced into exile in Abyssinia. After experiencing theIsra andMi'raj in 620 and receiving delegations from Medina and pledges of protection from the two Arab tribes that lived in the city at al-'Aqabah, Muhammad instructed his companions to gradually migrate to the city, beforedoing so himself in 622.

Critical evaluation of information sources is of particular importance in uncovering Muhammad'shistorical existence beyond the myths.Prophetic biography, known assīra, along with attributed records of the words, actions, and the silent approval of Muhammad, known ashadith, survive in the historical works of writers from the second and third centuries of theMuslim era (c. 700−1000 CE),[3]^[4] and give a great deal of information on Muhammad, but the reliability of this information is very much debated in academic circles due to the gap (Oral tradition) between the recorded dates of Muhammad's life and the dates when these events begin to appear in written sources.

The general Islamic view is that the Quran has been preserved from the beginning by both writing and memorization, and its testimony is considered beyond doubt. The earliest Muslim source of information for the life of Muhammad, theQuran, gives very little personal information and itshistoricity is debated.^[5][6] A group of researchers explores the irregularities and repetitions in the Quranic text in a way that refutes the traditional claim that it was preserved by memorization alongside writing. According to them, anoral period shaped the Quran as a text and order, and the repetitions and irregularities mentioned were remnants of this period.^[7] John Burton summarizes the information provided by the multitude of available sources, from a historian's perspective: states

In judging the content, the only resort of the scholar is to the yardstick of probability, and on this basis, it must be repeated, virtually nothing of use to the historian emerges from the sparse record of the early life of the founder of the latest of the great world religions ... so, however far back in the Muslim tradition one now attempts to reach, one simply cannot recover a scrap of information of real use in constructing the human history of Muhammad, beyond the bare fact that he once existed.^[8]

There are a relatively small number of contemporaneous or near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources which attest to the existence of Muhammad and are valuable both in themselves and for comparison with Muslim sources.^[6] As in the case ofMecca, these sources cannot be said to support the traditional Islamic narrative; where there is a lack of pre-Islamic sources that mention it as a pilgrimage center in historical sources before 741 here the author places the region in "midway betweenUr andHarran" rather than the Hejaz- and lacks pre-Islamic archaeological data.^{[9][Note 1]}

The early history of Mecca is still largely shrouded by a lack of clear sources. The city lies in the hinterland of the middle part of western Arabia of which there are sparse textual or archaeological sources available.^[11] This lack of knowledge is in contrast to both the northern and southern areas of western Arabia, specifically the Syro-Palestinian frontier and Yemen, where historians have various sources available such as physical remains of shrines, inscriptions, observations by Greco-Roman authors, and information collected by church historians. The area ofHejaz that surrounds Mecca was characterized by its remote, rocky, and inhospitable nature, supporting only meagre settled populations in scattered oases and occasional stretches of fertile land. The Red Sea coast offered no easily accessible ports and the oasis dwellers and bedouins in the region were illiterate.^[11]

Possible earlier mentions are not unambiguous. The Greek historianDiodorus Siculus writes aboutArabia in the 1st century BCE in his workBibliotheca historica, describing a holy shrine: "And a temple has been set up there, which is very holy and exceedingly revered by all Arabians".^[12] Claims have been made this could be a reference to theKa'bah in Mecca.^[13] However, the geographic location Diodorus describes is located in northwest Arabia, around the area ofLeuke Kome, within the formerNabataean Kingdom and the Roman province ofArabia Petraea.^[14][15]

Ptolemy lists the names of 50 cities in Arabia, one going by the name of Macoraba. There has been speculation since 1646 that this could be a reference to Mecca. Historically, there has been a general consensus in scholarship that Macoraba mentioned byPtolemy in the 2nd century CE is indeed Mecca, but more recently, this has been questioned.^[16][17] Bowersock favors the identity of the former, with his theory being that "Macoraba" is the word "Makkah" followed by the aggrandizingAramaic adjectiverabb (great). The Roman 4th-century historianAmmianus Marcellinus also enumerated many cities of Western Arabia, most of which can be identified. According to Bowersock, he did mention Mecca as "Geapolis" or "Hierapolis", the latter one meaning "holy city" potentially referring to the sanctuary of theKaaba.^[18]

Procopius' 6th century statement that theMa'add tribe possessed the coast of western Arabia between theGhassanids and theHimyarites of the south supports the Arabic sources tradition that associatesQuraysh as a branch of the Ma'add and Muhammad as a direct descendant of Ma'add ibn Adnan.^[19][20]

The central and northern parts of theArabian Peninsula were largely arid and volcanic, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Thus the Arabian landscape was dotted with towns and cities near those oases, and in fertile Southern Arabia and in coastal areas such asTihamah. Two prominent cities of the era were Mecca and Medina (then known as Yathrib).^[21] Communal life was essential for survival in desert conditions, as people needed support against the harsh environment and lifestyle. The tribal grouping was thus encouraged by the need to act as a unit. This unity was based on the bond of kinship by blood.^[22] People of Arabia were either nomadic or sedentary, the nomadic element constantly traveling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the sedentary inhabitants settled and focused on trade and agriculture. The survival of nomads (orbedouins) was also partially dependent on raiding caravans or oases; thus they saw this as no crime.^[23][24] Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many of the surrounding tribes.^[21]

Inpre-Islamic Arabia gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes and their spirits were associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. There was an important shrine in Mecca (called theKaaba) that housed statues of 360 idols of tribal patron-deities and was the site of an annual pilgrimage. Aside from these tribal gods, Arabs shared a common belief in asupreme deity Allah (akin to "God" in English, as opposed to "god") who was however remote from their everyday concerns and thus not the object of cult or ritual. Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters:al-Lat,Manat andal-Uzza. Some monotheistic communities also existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.^[25][26]

According to tradition, Muhammad himself was a descendant ofIshmael, son ofAbraham.^[27]

Muhammad was born in the month ofRabi' al-Awwal. Islamic historians place the year of Muhammad's birth asc. 570, corresponding with theYear of the Elephant. However, recent scholarship has suggested earlier dates for this event, including 568 and 569.^[28] The precise date of Muhammad's birth varies between differentIslamic sects, with mostSunnis accepting the 12th of Rabi'-ul-Awwal as the date of his birth as posited byIbn Ishaq. Other opinions claim dates like the 2nd, 8th, or the 10th of Rabi'-ul-Awwal^[29] whileShi'a Muslims believe it to have been the dawn of 17th day of same month.^[30] Muhammad was born into the family ofBanu Hashim,^[31] one of the prominent clans forming theQuraysh tribe ofMecca, although the family seems to have not been as prosperous during Muhammad's early lifetime.^[5][32] His parents were'Abdullah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib of the Banu Hashim andAminah bint Wahb, the sister of the then-chief of theBanu Zuhrah.^[33] Muhammad's paternal great-grandmother,Salma bint 'Amr, was an influential Jewish lady from theKhazraj tribe ofMedina, thus Muhammad had mixed Arab-Jewish ancestry.^[34] According toIbn Ishaq, an early biographer of Muhammad, 'Abd al-Muttalib, Muhammad's grandfather, came up with the child's name, which was quite unknown at the time in theArabian Peninsula.

Muhammad's father,Abdullah, died almost six month before he was born.^[35] Muhammad was sent to live with aBedouin family in the desert soon after his birth, as the desert life was considered healthier for infants.^[36] Because he was fatherless,wet nurses refused to take him, fearing that it would not be profitable to take care of an orphan. However, he was accepted byHalimah bint Abi Dhuayb al-Sa'diyyah, who had found no child to take care of.^[37] Muhammad stayed with Halimah and her husband until he was two or three years old.^[36][38] He lived with his mother in Mecca for the next three years until she took him toMedina (then known as Yathrib) to visit his maternal relatives, and died on the way back aroundAbwa'. Having lost both his parents, Muhammad's grandfather,'Abd al-Muttalib, took over custodianship of the child. Two years later, his grandfather died and Muhammad was raised under the care of his uncleAbu Talib, the leader of theBanu Hashim.^[28][39] While living with his uncle, Muhammad began tending flocks of sheep on the outskirts ofMecca to earn his living. He also accompanied his uncle on several of his commercial journeys. These journeys exposed Muhammad tocultural diversity and varyingreligious traditions.^[40] At the age of 9, he went with his uncleAbu Talib on a business journey toSyria, where Muslims believe he metBahira in the town ofBosra, who foretold his prophecy.^[41][42]

Later in his life, influenced by the commercial journeys with his uncle, Muhammad worked as a merchant and was involved in trade between theIndian Ocean and theMediterranean.^[43][44][45] During his career as a merchant, Muhammad became known as "the Trustworthy" (Arabic:الأمين) and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator of disputes.^[5][46][47]

After parts of theKaaba were destroyed inflash floods, with the reconstruction almost complete, disagreements arose among the leaders of the different clans of theQuraysh as to which one should put theBlack Stone into place. These disagreements led to an escalation in tensions, and war seemed imminent before they agreed to take the advice of the next person entering theHaram. Muslims believe Muhammad was this person, and that he spread out his cloak, put the stone in the middle and had the members of the four major clans raise it to its destined position, before ensuring its secure placement with his own hands.^[48][49]

Khadija bint Khuwaylid, a female merchant and widow, asked Muhammad to manage her commercial operations in Syria after hearing of his trustworthiness. Impressed with the extraordinary success of Muhammad's leadership, Khadija sent amarriage proposal to Muhammad through her friend Nafisa.^[45][50] Muhammad accepted the proposal and married Khadija. Khadija gave Muhammad the slave boyZayd ibn Harithah, whom Muhammad would adopt later.^[51]Ibn Ishaq records that Khadija bore Muhammad six children: a boy namedAl Qasim (who would die at the age of two), then four girls,Zaynab,Ruqayyah,Umm Kulthum,Fatimah, and another boy,Abdullah (who also died at two).^[52]

Due to the death of Abdullah, Muhammad's desire to relieve his uncle Abu Talib of the burden of providing for a large family, and Abu Talib's financial situation, Muhammad took Abu Talib's son and his cousin,Ali, into his own home. Muhammad also adopted Zayd, giving him the name Zayd ibn Muhammad. Muslims believe that this renaming was rendered invalid by the revelation of some verses inSurah 33 of the Qur'an,Al Aḥzāb, wherein it is stated that an adopted child could not be treated as a natural son by marriage or inheritance. Consequently, the adopted child had to retain the name of his or her biological father. Therefore, Zayd's name was reverted to Zayd ibn Haritha.^{[52][Quran 33:40]}

At some point, Muhammad adopted the practice of meditating alone for several weeks every year in a cave onMount Hira near Mecca.^[53][54] Islamic belief holds that in one of his visits to Mount Hira in the year 610, 13 years before theHijra, the angelGabriel began communicating with and commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses of the 96thSurah of theQuran,Al 'Alaq:^[55]

Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not. (Qur'an96:1–5)

MostSunni traditions believe that upon receiving his first revelations Muhammad was deeply distressed, but the spirit moved closer and told him that he had been chosen as a messenger of God, and that Muhammad returned home and was consoled and reassured by Khadija and herChristian cousin,Waraqah ibn Nawfal.Shiite Muslims maintain that Muhammad was neither surprised nor frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather welcomed him as if he had been expecting him.^[56] The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years during which Muhammad gave himself up further to prayers andspiritual practices. When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching:^[57][58]

Your lord has not forsaken you nor does he hate [you] (Qur'an93:3)

According toWelch, these revelations were accompanied by mysteriousseizures, and the reports are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.^[5]W. Montgomery Watt further adds that Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.^[59]

Muhammad's early efforts in preaching the new faith focused on the preaching of a single ideal:monotheism.Surahs of the Quran believed to have been revealed during this period, known as theMeccan surahs (Arabic:السور المكّيّة), command Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name ofAllah, instruct him not to worship idols or associate other deities with Allah and to worship Him alone,^[60] warn thepagans of their eschatological punishment,^{[Quran 38:70][Quran 6:19]} sometimes referring to theDay of Judgement indirectly, while providing examples from the history of some extinct communities.^{[Quran 43:13–16][60]} Early converts to Islam included Muhammad's wife,Khadija, his cousinAli, his adopted sonZayd, his nursemaidUmm Ayman, and his friendAbu Bakr.

Very few of theQuraysh gave weight to Muhammad's message; most ignored it and a few mocked him.^[61] According toWelch, early Qur'anic verses were not "based on adogmatic conception ofmonotheism but on a strong general moral and religious appeal," further adding that the key themes of theseMeccan surahs include themoral responsibility of man towards his creator: the resurrection of the dead, the Day of Judgement supplemented with vivid descriptions of the tortures in hell and pleasures in paradise, the wonders of nature and everyday life, the signs of God, and the proof of the existence of a greater power who will take into account the greed of people and their suppression of the poor.^[62] The foundations of early religious duties were also laid and includedbelief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offeringfrequent prayers, assisting others with emphasis on those in need, ejecting cheating and the love of wealth, chastity, and the prevention offemicide which was prevalent in earlyArabia.^[62]

There were three main groups of early converts toIslam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants, people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it, and the weak, mostly unprotected, foreigners.^[61] Abu Bakr, who used to purchase slaves to set them free in accordance with Muhammad's principle of equality, attracted a large number of converts. Nevertheless, the number of these early converts remained small, and Muhammad concentrated on quietly building a small, but spiritually strong, community.^[63] Around 613, the Quran commanded Muhammad to "admonish your nearest kinsmen,"^{[Quran 26:214]} initiating the phase of public preaching. One day, Muhammad climbed theAs Safa mountain, and called out the tribal chiefs. After receiving assurances that the chiefs, who reportedly never heard Muhammad tell lies, would believe him, he declared theOneness of God. Later Muhammadorganized dinners in which he conveyed and advocated the substance of his message. At these events, Muhammad met fierce opposition from one of his uncles,Abu Lahab.^[63][64]

Conservative opposition arose to Muhammad's speeches. According toIbn Sa'd, the opposition in Mecca began with Muhammad delivering verses that "spoke shamefully of the idols [the Meccans] worshiped other than [Allah] and mentioned the perdition of their fathers who died in disbelief."^[65] According to Watt, as Muhammad's followers gained traction inMecca, they posed a new, internal threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the annual pilgrimage to the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life, which Muhammad threatened to overthrow; his denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba.^[61] Some of the ranking and influential leaders of the Quraysh tried and failed to come to arrangements with Muhammad in exchange for abandoning his preaching. They offered him admission into the inner circle of merchants and establishing his position in the circle by an advantageous marriage, but Muhammad refused.^[61] During this period, Muhammad urged his followers to bepacifist; according toPeterson, to "deal gently with the infidels".^[66]

Relations between Muhammad's Islamic faction and the other members of theQuraysh rapidly deteriorated. Muhammad's open denunciation of the Meccan idols provoked hostile reactions, and he was mainly protected from physical harm for he belonged to theBanu Hashim; injuring Muhammad threatened to open up a blood feud between the Banu Hashim and the rest of the Quraysh, undermining the legitimacy and morality of the tribal leaders, thus, the Quraysh were reluctant to hurt or kill Muhammad.^[66] Regardless, several attempts were made at Muhammad's life.^[67][68] Traditional Islamic accounts maintain that the Quraysh first taunted Muslims by interrupting their prayers. Western scholars have accepted records of persecution and ill-treatment of Muhammad's followers. Many of Muhammad's followers were harassed, assaulted and forced into exile—and two,Yasir bin 'Amir andSumayya bint Khabbat, were tortured and killed.^[69]

In 615, at a time of heightened violence against the Muslims, Muhammad arranged for his followers to emigrate to theKingdom of Aksum and found a small colony there under the protection of the Christian king,al-Negashi.^[5] While the traditions view the persecutions of Meccans to have played the major role in the emigration,William Montgomery Watt, a professor of Islamic studies, states "there is reason to believe that some sort of division within the embryonic Muslim community played a role and that some of the emigrants may have gone to Abyssinia to engage in trade, possibly in competition with prominent merchant families in Mecca."^[5] The Meccans sentAmr ibn al-As and Abdullah ibn Rabi'ah to negotiate the surrender of the Muslims to the Quraysh, however, theNegus refused their request.^[70]

Sunni Muslims believe Muhammad prayed for the strengthening of the cause of Islam through the conversion of eitherUmar ibn al-Khattab orAmr ibn Hishām.^[71] Umar initially reacted to Muhammad's preaching by ardently opposing it. Angered by Muhammad's preaching which had led to divisions within Meccan society, he eventually decided to kill Muhammad, whom he held responsible for the divisions.^[72] While en route to assassinate Muhammad, Umar was informed of his sister's conversion to Islam. Approaching his sister's house, he heard her reciting theQuran. Eventually considering the words beautiful and noble, Umar converted to Islam, making his conversion public instantly. Tempered by Umar's conversion, Muslims could now pray openly at theKaaba, as the pagans were reluctant to confront Umar, known for his forceful character.^[72]

Two important clans of Quraysh declared a public banishment against the clan of Banu Hashim in order to put pressure on the clan to withdraw their protection of Muhammad.^[73][74] The terms imposed on Banu Hashim, as reported byIbn Ishaq, were that "no one should marry their women nor give women for them to marry; and that no one should either buy from them or sell to them."^[75] The banishment lasted for two or three years but eventually collapsed mainly because it was not achieving its purpose and sympathizers of the Hashemites within the Quraysh finally united to annul the agreement.^[74][76]

9 years into Muhammad's claim to prophethood, two of the most committed defenders of Muhammad's message, his wifeKhadija and his uncleAbu Talib, died. With the death of Abu Talib, the leadership of the clan of Banu Hashim was passed to another uncle of Muhammad,Abu Lahab, an inveterate enemy of Muhammad and Islam. Abu Lahab soon withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad, placing Muhammad in mortal danger since the withdrawal of clan protection implied that the blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then tried to find a protector for himself in another important Arabian city close to Mecca,Ta'if, but his effort failed as he was pelted with stones in the city.^[5][74]

Sometime in 620, the year following the Year of Sorrow, Muhammad sent a proposal of marriage to Sawda bint Zam'a, an early convert to Islam. The proposal was accepted by both her and her father, Zam'a ibn Qays. Muhammad and Sawda were married in Ramadan of that year. Muhammad also married Aisha, a daughter of his friend and companionAbu Bakr, when she was somewhere between 6 and 9 years old, which has caused controversy in modern scholarly discussion. Both Sawda and Aisha would outlive Muhammad, dying around sometime between 642–672 and in 678, respectively. Aisha would narrate more than 2,200 hadiths in the 44 years she lived after Muhammad, covering several diverse topics, includinginheritance,pilgrimage,eschatology and Muhammad's private life.

Some time in 620, Muhammad told his followers that he had experienced theIsra and Mi'raj, a supernatural journey toJerusalem (Isra) and ascension to theSeven Heavens (Mi'raj), said to have been accomplished in one night along with the angelGabriel. Muhammad is said to have touredheaven andhell, and spoken with earlier prophets, includingAdam,Ibrahim,Musa, andIsa.Ibn Ishaq, author of firstbiography of Muhammad, presents this event as a spiritual experience while later historians likeal-Tabari andIbn Kathir present it as a physical journey.^[77] Some western scholars of Islam hold that the oldest Muslim tradition identified as a journey traveled through the heavens from thesacred enclosure at Mecca to theBayt al-Ma'mur (a celestial recreation of the Kaaba); others identify it as Muhammad's journey from Mecca to theBayt al-Maqdis inJerusalem.^[78]

Since the Quraysh gave little weight to Muhammad's message, Muhammad took to spreading his message to the merchants and pilgrims that frequented Mecca. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Medina.^[5] mThe Arab population of Yathrib were somewhat familiar with monotheism because aJewish community existed in that city. Muhammad met with a few members of the two tribes of Medina, theAws andKhazraj, twice, at a hill known as al-'Aqabah nearMina, where they pledged their allegiance to Muhammad and agreed to protect Muhammad if he were to migrate to Medina. Following the pledges at al-'Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Medina. The Quraysh attempted to stop the Muslims from emigrating to the city, however, almost all Muslims managed to leave.^[79]

Muslims believe Muhammad waited until he was commanded by Allah to migrate to Medina. Upon receiving this divine direction, Muhammad planned to leave Mecca the same night. The Quraysh had besieged his house hearing of the large numbers of Muslims who had emigrated prior to him. Muhammad slipped from his home the night of the planned assassination. Due to his possession of several articles that belonged to members of the Quraysh, Muhammad asked Ali to stay behind to settle his outstanding financial obligations. Ali had worn Muhammad's cloak, leading the assassins to think Muhammad had not yet departed. By the time the assassins realised this, Muhammad had already left the city with Abu Bakr. Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammed's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping. Ali then went to Medina with his mother,Fatima bint Asad, and Muhammed's daughters,Fatimah andUmm Kulthum as well as two other women, Muhammad's wife,Sawda, and wetnurse,Umm Ayman.^[80][81] Muhammad and Abu Bakr took refuge in a cave atop theThawr mountain outside Mecca before continuing their journey. To further delude the Quraysh, Muhammad travelled south for the first few days of his journey, in the opposite direction to Medina. Later, Muhammad and Abu Bakr turned to the Red Sea, following the coastline up to Medina, arriving atQuba' on Monday, 27 September 622.^[79]

Muhammad returned to Mecca not long before his death, following the victory of his forces in theMuslim–Quraysh War (Arabic:فتح مكةFatḥ Makkah). The date Muhammad set out for Mecca is variously given as 2, 6 or 10 Ramadan 8 AH^[82] (December 629 or January 630).^[82][83] (10–20Ramadan, 8AH).^[82] The date of his entry into Mecca is variously given as 8–12 days later (10, 17/18, 19 or 20 Ramadan 8 AH).^[82] While in Mecca, Muhammad prayed in the direction of the Kaaba and addressed the Quraysh, destroyed pagan idols, while his army destroyed pre-Islamic influences and punished Quraysh stragglers.

TheQuran is the onlyprimary source for the life of Muhammad in Mecca.^[84] The text of the Quran is generally considered by university scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad as the search for variants in Western academia has not yielded any differences of great significance.^[85] The Quran, however, mainly records the ideological and spiritual considerations of Muhammad, and only fragmentarily references to the details of his life in the city, which makes it difficult to reconstruct the chronological order of the incidents in his or his followers' lives in Mecca.^[86] Modern biographers of Muhammad try to reconstruct the socioeconomic and sociopolitical aspects of Mecca and read the ideological aspects of the Quran in that context.^[86]

Other later historical works, particularly those of the 3rd and 4th century of the Islamic calendar, are also of considerable importance in mapping Muhammad's life in the city.^[4] These include the early biographies of Muhammad (seerah), particularly those written byIbn Ishaq (c. 704–767 CE) andIbn Sa'd (c. 784–845 CE), and quotes attributed to Muhammad inhadith literature, compiled by Islamic scholars such asAl Bukhari (c. 810–870 CE) andMuslim ibn Hajjaj (c. 815–875 CE) which provide further information on his life.[87] The earliest survivingseerah is the "Sīrah Rasūl Allah" by Ibn Ishaq.^[88] Although the original is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions ofIbn Hisham andal-Tabari.^[89] Many historians accept the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.^[90] According toWilliam Montgomery Watt, in the legal sphere, it would seem that sheer invention could have very well happened. In the historical sphere, however, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been subject to "tendential shaping" rather than being completely fabricated.^[86]

Hadiths are the record of the traditions or sayings of Muhammad, defined as the biography of Muhammad perpetuated by the long memory of his companions and community for their exemplification and obedience.^[91] The development of hadiths is a vital contributive element to the biography of Muhammad in early Islamic history. There had been a common tendency among earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods, who regarded them as fabrications.Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports toAbdullah ibn 'Abbas and'Aisha as mostly fictitious while examining accounts reported withoutsanad by the early compilers ofseerah such asIbn Ishaq.Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.^[92]

Sunni Muslims consider theSahih al-Bukhari andSahih Muslim, the collection of hadiths made by Al Bukhari and Muslim ibn Hajjaj, to be the most authoritative hadith collections. Al Bukhari is said to have spent over 16 years gathering over 1,600,000 hadiths and finding the best 7,397 of them. Most of these traditions deal with the life of Muhammad.^[93] ForShiites, the words and deeds of theirImams, the progeny of Muhammad, are given that authority. Originally transmitted from generation to generation orally before being compiled, some of these sayings, according to their chain of transmission, are sayings of Muhammad.^[94]

• History of Islam
• Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
• Timeline of the history of Islam

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• P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill Academic Publishers.ISSN 1573-3912.
• Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2005).Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-90-04-12356-4.
• Encyclopedia of World History. Oxford University Press. 1998.ISBN 0-19-860223-5.
• Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. 1983.ISBN 1-56859-050-4.
• Meri, Josef W., ed. (2006).Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis.ISBN 0-415-96691-4.

• Life of Muhammad
• History of Mecca

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