Between the 7th and 11th centuries, a series of Swahili port towns developed on that area, which contributed to the development of a distinctSwahili culture and dialect. In the late medieval period, these towns were frequented by traders from Somalia, Ethiopia,Egypt, Arabia, Persia, andIndia.[10] The voyage ofVasco da Gama in 1498 marked the arrival of thePortuguese, who began a gradual process of colonisation and settlement in 1505. After over four centuries ofPortuguese rule, Mozambiquegained independence in 1975, becoming thePeople's Republic of Mozambique shortly thereafter. After only two years of independence, the country descended into an intense and protractedcivil war lasting from 1977 to 1992. In 1994, Mozambique held its first multiparty elections and has since remained a relatively stablepresidential republic, although it still faces alow-intensity insurgency distinctively in the farthermost regions from the southern capital and where Islam is dominant.
Mozambique is endowed with rich and extensive natural resources, notwithstanding the country's economy is based chiefly on fishery—substantiallymolluscs,crustaceans andechinoderms—and agriculture with a growing industry of food and beverages, chemical manufacturing, aluminium and oil. The tourism sector is expanding. Since 2001, Mozambique's GDP growth has been thriving, but since 2014/15, both a significant decrease in household real consumption and a sharp rise ineconomic inequality have been observed.[11] The nation remains one of the poorest andmost underdeveloped countries in the world,[12] ranking low inGDP per capita,human development, measures ofinequality and averagelife expectancy.[13]
The country's population of around 34,777,605 consisting more than 2,000 ethnic groups, as of 2024 estimates, which is a 2.96% population increase from 2023, is composed overwhelmingly ofBantu peoples. However, the only official language in Mozambique isPortuguese, which is spoken in urban areas as a first or second language by most, and generally as alingua franca between younger Mozambicans with access to formal education. The most important local languages includeTsonga,Makhuwa,Sena,Chichewa, andSwahili.Glottolog lists 46 languages spoken in the country,[14] of which one is a signed language (Mozambican Sign Language/Língua de sinais de Moçambique). The largestreligion in Mozambique is Christianity, with significant minorities following Islam andAfrican traditional religions.
The country was named Moçambique by the Portuguese after theIsland of Mozambique, derived from eitherMussa Bin Bique,Musa Al Big,Mossa Al Bique,Mussa Ben Mbiki orMussa Ibn Malik, an Arab trader who first visited the island and later lived there[15] and was still alive whenVasco da Gama called at the island in 1498.[16] The island-town was the capital of the Portuguese colony until 1898, when it was moved south to Lourenço Marques (nowMaputo).
Bantu-speaking peoples migrated into Mozambique as early as the 4th century BC.[17] It is believed between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, waves of migration from the west and north went through theZambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and coastal areas of Southern Africa.[18] They established agricultural communities or societies based on herding cattle. They brought with them the technology for smelting[19] and smithing iron.
Arab-Swahili slave traders and their captives on theRuvuma River
From the late first millennium AD, vastIndian Ocean trade networks extended as far south into Mozambique as evidenced by the ancient port town ofChibuene.[20] Beginning in the 9th century, a growing involvement in Indian Ocean trade led to the development of numerous port towns along the entire East African coast, including modern day Mozambique. Largely autonomous, these towns broadly participated in the incipientSwahili culture. Islam was often adopted by urban elites, facilitating trade. In Mozambique,Sofala,Angoche, and Mozambique Island were regional powers by the 15th century.[21]
The towns traded with merchants from both the African interior and the broader Indian Ocean world. Particularly important were the gold and ivory caravan routes. Inland states like theKingdom of Zimbabwe andKingdom of Mutapa provided the coveted gold and ivory, which were then exchanged up the coast to larger port cities likeKilwa andMombasa.[22]
TheIsland of Mozambique after which the country is named, is a small coral island at the mouth of Mossuril Bay on theNacala coast of northern Mozambique, first explored by Europeans in the late 15th century.
When Portuguese explorers reached Mozambique in 1498, Arab-trading settlements had existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries.[23][24] From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts displaced the Arabic commercial and military hegemony, becoming regular ports of call on the new European sea route to the east,[18][25] the first steps in what was to become a process of colonisation.[25][26]
The voyage ofVasco da Gama around theCape of Good Hope in 1498 marked the Portuguese entry into trade, politics, and society of the region. The Portuguese gained control of the Island of Mozambique and the port city of Sofala in the early 16th century, and by the 1530s, small groups of Portuguese traders and prospectors seeking gold penetrated the interior regions. Here they set up garrisons and trading posts atSena andTete on the Zambezi and tried to gain exclusive control over the gold trade.[24]
In the central part of the Mozambique territory, the Portuguese attempted to legitimise and consolidate their trade and settlement positions through the creation ofprazos.[24] These land grants tied emigrants to their settlements, and inland Mozambique was largely left to be administered byprazeiros, the grant holders, while central authorities in Portugal concentrated their direct exercise of power on, in their view, the more important Portuguese possessions in Asia and the Americas.[24][27] Slavery in Mozambique pre-dated European-contact. African rulers and chiefs dealt in enslaved people, first with Arab Muslim traders, who sent the enslaved to Middle East Asia cities and plantations, and later with Portuguese and other European traders. In a continuation of the trade, slaves were supplied by warring local African rulers, who raided enemy tribes and sold their captives to theprazeiros. The authority of theprazeiros was exercised and upheld amongst the local population by armies of these enslaved men, whose members became known asChikunda.[24] Continuing emigration from Portugal occurred at comparatively low levels until late in the nineteenth century, promoting "Africanisation".[24] Whileprazos were originally intended to be held solely by Portuguese colonists, through intermarriage and the relative isolation ofprazeiros from ongoing Portuguese influences, theprazos became African-Portuguese or African-Indian.[24][25]
View of the Central Avenue in Lourenço Marques, now Maputo, ca. 1905
Although Portuguese influence gradually expanded, its power was limited and exercised through individual settlers and officials who were granted extensive autonomy. The Portuguese were able to wrest much of the coastal trade from Arab Muslims between 1500 and 1700, but, with the Arab Muslim seizure of Portugal's key foothold atFort Jesus onMombasa Island (now in Kenya) in 1698, the pendulum began to swing in the other direction. As a result, investment lagged whileLisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with India and the Far East and to the colonisation of Brazil.[18]
TheMazrui andOmani Arabs reclaimed much of the Indian Ocean trade, forcing the Portuguese to retreat south. Manyprazos had declined by the mid-19th century, but several of them survived. During the 19th century other European powers, particularly the British (British South Africa Company) and the French (Madagascar), became increasingly involved in the trade and politics of the region around the Portuguese East African territories.[28]
Portuguese language printing and typesetting class, 1930
By the early 20th century the Portuguese had shifted the administration of much of Mozambique to large private companies, like theMozambique Company, theZambezia Company and theNiassa Company, controlled and financed mostly by British financiers such asSolomon Joel, which established railroad lines to their neighbouring colonies (South Africa andRhodesia). Although slavery had been legally abolished in Mozambique, at the end of the 19th century the chartered companies enacted a forced labour policy and supplied cheap—often forced—African labour to the mines andplantations of the nearby British colonies and South Africa.[18] The Zambezia Company, the most profitable chartered company, took over several smallerprazeiro holdings and established military outposts to protect its property. The chartered companies built roads and ports to bring their goods to market including a railroad linking present-day Zimbabwe with the Mozambican port ofBeira.[29][30]
Due to their unsatisfactory performance and the shift, under thecorporatistEstado Novo regime ofOliveira Salazar, toward a stronger Portuguese control ofPortuguese Empire's economy, the companies' concessions were not renewed when they ran out. This was what happened in 1942 with the Mozambique Company, which, however, continued to operate in the agricultural and commercial sectors as a corporation, and had already happened in 1929 with the termination of the Niassa Company's concession. In 1951, the Portuguese overseas colonies in Africa were rebranded as Overseas Provinces of Portugal.[29][30][31]
TheMueda massacre of 16 June 1960, resulted in the death ofMakonde protestors, which provoked the struggle of independence from Portuguese rule of Mozambique.
Ascommunist andanti-colonial ideologies spread out across Africa, many clandestine political movements were established in support of Mozambican independence. These movements claimed that since policies and development plans were primarily designed by the ruling authorities for the benefit of Mozambique's Portuguese population, little attention was paid to Mozambique's tribal integration and the development of its native communities.[32] According to the official guerrilla statements, this affected a majority of the indigenous population who suffered both state-sponsored discrimination and enormous social pressure. As a response to the guerrilla movement, the Portuguese government from the 1960s and principally the early 1970s initiated gradual changes with new socioeconomic developments and egalitarian policies.[33]
The Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) initiated a guerrilla campaign against Portuguese rule in September 1964. This conflict—along with the two others already initiated in the other Portuguese colonies ofAngola andPortuguese Guinea—became part of the so-calledPortuguese Colonial War (1961–1974). From a military standpoint, the Portuguese regular army maintained control of the population centres while the guerrilla forces sought to undermine their influence in rural and tribal areas in the north and west. As part of their response to FRELIMO, the Portuguese government began to pay more attention to creating favourable conditions for social development and economic growth.[34]
FRELIMO took control of the territory after ten years of sporadic warfare, as well as Portugal's own return to democracy after the fall of the authoritarianEstado Novo regime in theCarnation Revolution of April 1974 and the failedcoup of 25 November 1975. Within a year, most of the 250,000 Portuguese in Mozambique had left—some expelled by the government of the nearly independent territory, some left the country to avoid possible reprisals from the unstable government—and Mozambique became independent from Portugal on 25 June 1975.[35] A law had been passed on the initiative of the relatively unknownArmando Guebuza of the FRELIMO party, ordering the Portuguese to leave the country in 24 hours with only 20 kilograms (44 pounds) of luggage. Unable to salvage any of their assets, most of them returned to Portugal penniless.[36]
Thenew government under PresidentSamora Machel established aone-party state based onMarxist principles. It received diplomatic and some military support fromCuba and theSoviet Union and proceeded to crack down on opposition.[37] Starting shortly after independence, the country was plagued from 1977 to 1992 by a long and violent civil war between the opposition forces of anti-communist Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO) rebel militias and the FRELIMO regime. This conflict characterised the first decades of Mozambican independence, combined with sabotage from the neighbouring states ofRhodesia and South Africa, ineffective policies, failed central planning, and the resulting economic collapse. This period was also marked by the exodus of Portuguese nationals and Mozambicans of Portuguese heritage,[38] a collapsed infrastructure, lack of investment in productive assets, and government nationalisation of privately owned industries, as well as widespread famine.
During most of the civil war, the FRELIMO-formed central government was unable to exercise effective control outside urban areas, many of which were cut off from the capital.[18] RENAMO-controlled areas included up to 50% of the rural areas in several provinces, and it is reported that health services of any kind were isolated from assistance for years in those areas. The problem worsened when the government cut back spending on health care.[39] The war was marked by mass human rights violations from both sides of the conflict, with both RENAMO and FRELIMO contributing to the chaos through the use of terror and indiscriminate targeting of civilians.[40][41] The central government executed tens of thousands of people while trying to extend its control throughout the country and sent many people to "re-education camps" where thousands died.[40]
The geopolitical situation in 1975; nations friendly to the FRELIMO are shown in orange.
During the war, RENAMO proposed a peace agreement based on the secession of RENAMO-controlled northern and western territories as the independentRepublic of Rombesia, but FRELIMO refused, insisting on the undivided sovereignty of the entire country. An estimated one million Mozambicans perished during the civil war, 1.7 million took refuge in neighbouring states, and several million more were internally displaced.[42] The FRELIMO regime also gave shelter and support to South African (African National Congress) and Zimbabwean (Zimbabwe African National Union) rebel movements, while the governments of Rhodesia and later Apartheid South Africa backed RENAMO in the civil war.[18] Between 300,000 and 600,000 people died of famine during the war.[43]
On 19 October 1986, Machel was on his way back from an international meeting in Zambia when hisplane crashed in theLebombo Mountains nearMbuzini in South Africa. President Machel and thirty-three others died, including ministers and officials of the Mozambique government. The United Nations' Soviet delegation issued a minority report contending that their expertise and experience had been undermined by the South Africans. Representatives of the Soviet Union advanced the theory that the plane had been intentionally diverted by a falsenavigational beacon signal, using a technology provided by military intelligence operatives of the South African government.[44]
Machel's successorJoaquim Chissano implemented sweeping changes in the country, starting reforms such as changing from Marxism to capitalism and began peace talks with RENAMO. The new constitution enacted in 1990 provided for amulti-party political system, amarket-based economy, and free elections. That same year, Mozambique abolished the people's republic as the country's official name. The civil war ended in October 1992 with theRome General Peace Accords, first brokered by the Christian Council of Mozambique (Council of Protestant Churches) and then taken over byCommunity of Sant'Egidio. Peace returned to Mozambique, under the supervision of thepeacekeeping force of the United Nations.[45][18]
Mozambique held elections in 1994, which were accepted by most political parties as free and fair although still contested by many nationals and observers alike. FRELIMO won, under Joaquim Chissano, while RENAMO, led byAfonso Dhlakama, ran as the official opposition.[46][47] In 1995, Mozambique joined theCommonwealth of Nations, becoming, at the time, the only member nation that had never been part of theBritish Empire.[48]
By mid-1995, over 1.7 million refugees who had sought asylum in neighbouring countries had returned to Mozambique, part of the largest repatriation witnessed in sub-Saharan Africa. An additional four millioninternally displaced persons had returned to their homes.[18] In December 1999, Mozambique held elections for a second time since the civil war, which were again won by FRELIMO. RENAMO accused FRELIMO of fraud and threatened to return to civil war but backed down after taking the matter to the Supreme Court and losing.[49][50]
In early 2000, a cyclone causedwidespread flooding, killing hundreds and devastating the already precarious infrastructure.[51] There were widespread suspicions that foreign aid resources had been diverted by powerful leaders of FRELIMO.Carlos Cardoso, a journalist investigating these allegations, was murdered,[52][53] and his death was never satisfactorily explained.[54]
Indicating in 2001 that he would not run for a third term,[55] Chissano criticised leaders who stayed on longer than he had, which was generally seen as a reference to Zambian PresidentFrederick Chiluba and Zimbabwean PresidentRobert Mugabe.[56] Presidential and National Assembly elections took place on 1–2 December 2004. FRELIMO candidateArmando Guebuza won[57] with 64% of the popular vote, and Dhlakama received 32% of the popular vote. FRELIMO won 160 seats in Parliament, with a coalition of RENAMO and several small parties winning the 90 remaining seats. Guebuza was inaugurated as the President of Mozambique on 2 February 2005[58] and served two five-year terms. His successor,Filipe Nyusi, became the fourth President of Mozambique on 15 January 2015.[59][60]
From 2013 to 2019, a low-intensityinsurgency by RENAMO occurred, mainly in the country's central and northern regions. On 5 September 2014, Guebuza and Dhlakama signed the Accord on Cessation of Hostilities, which brought the military hostilities to a halt and allowed both parties to concentrate on the general elections to be held in October 2014. However, after the general elections, a new political crisis emerged. RENAMO did not recognise the validity of the election results and demanded the control of six provinces – Nampula, Niassa, Tete, Zambezia, Sofala, and Manica – where they claimed to have won a majority.[61] About 12,000 refugees fled toMalawi.[62] TheUNHCR,Doctors Without Borders, andHuman Rights Watch reported that government forces had torched villages and carried outsummary executions andsexual abuses.[63]
In October 2019, President Filipe Nyusi was re-elected after a landslide victory ingeneral election. FRELIMO won 184 seats, RENAMO got 60 seats and the MDM party received the remaining 6 seats in the National Assembly. Opposition did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud and irregularities. FRELIMO secured two-thirds majority in parliament which allowed FRELIMO to re-adjust the constitution without needing the agreement of the opposition.[64]
At 309,475 sq mi (801,537 km2), Mozambique is the world's 35th-largest country. Mozambique is located on the southeast coast ofAfrica and is bound byEswatini to the south,South Africa to the southwest,Zimbabwe to the west,Zambia andMalawi to the northwest,Tanzania to the north and the Indian Ocean to the east. Mozambique lies between latitudes10° and27°S, and longitudes30° and41°E.
The country is divided into two topographical regions by the Zambezi River. To the north of the Zambezi, the narrow coastal strip gives way to inland hills and low plateaus. Rugged highlands are further west; they include the Niassa highlands,Namuli or Shire highlands, Angonia highlands, Tete highlands and the Makonde plateau, covered withmiombo woodlands. To the south of the Zambezi, the lowlands are broader with the Mashonaland plateau andLebombo Mountains located in the deep south.
Mozambique map of Köppen climate classification zones
Mozambique has a tropical climate with two seasons: awet season from October to March and adry season from April to September. Climatic conditions, however, vary depending on altitude. Rainfall is heavy along the coast and decreases in the north and south. Annual precipitation varies from 500 to 900 mm (19.7 to 35.4 in) depending on the region, with an average of 590 mm (23.2 in). Cyclones are common during the wet season. Average temperature ranges in Maputo are from 13 to 24 °C (55.4 to 75.2 °F) in July and from 22 to 31 °C (71.6 to 87.8 °F) in February.[citation needed]
In 2019 Mozambique suffered floods and destruction from the devastating cyclonesIdai andKenneth, the first time two cyclones had struck the nation in a single season.[73]
Thousands of crops were destroyed during the flooding, which causes transboundary animal diseases, and over 10 million people were affected throughout the region, according to the FAO's urgent campaign for southern Africa, which includes Malawi, Madagascar, and Mozambique. These countries have been experiencing climate disasters between January and March 2023 that have seriously affected various sectors, including farming, fisheries, and thousands of crops.[74]
Protected areas include thirteen forest reserves, seven national parks, six nature reserves, three frontier conservation areas and three wildlife or game reserves.
TheConstitution of Mozambique stipulates that thePresident of the Republic functions as the head of state, head of government, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and as a symbol of national unity.[75] They aredirectly elected for a five-year term via run-off voting. Theprime minister is appointed by the president. Their functions include convening and chairing the council of ministers (cabinet), advising the president, assisting the president in governing the country, and coordinating the functions of the other ministers.
Mozambique is divided into ten provinces (provincias) and one capital city (cidade capital) with provincial status. The provinces are subdivided into 129 districts (distritos). The districts are further divided into 405 "postos administrativos" (administrative posts, headed bysecretários) and then intolocalidades (localities), the lowest geographical level of the central state administration. There are 53 "municípios" (municipalities).[citation needed]
While allegiances dating back to the liberation struggle remain relevant, Mozambique's foreign policy has become increasingly pragmatic. The twin pillars of Mozambique's foreign policy are maintenance of good relations with its neighbours[76] and maintenance and expansion of ties to development partners.[18]
During the 1970s and the early 1980s, Mozambique's foreign policy was inextricably linked to the struggles for majority rule in Rhodesia and South Africa as well as superpower competition and theCold War.[77] Mozambique's decision to enforce UN sanctions against Rhodesia and deny that country access to the sea ledIan Smith's government to undertake overt and covert actions to oppose the country. Although the change of government in Zimbabwe in 1980 removed this threat, the government of South Africa continued to destabilise Mozambique.[18] Mozambique also belonged to theFrontline States.[78] The 1984Nkomati Accord, while failing in its goal of ending South African support to RENAMO, opened initial diplomatic contacts between the Mozambican and South African governments. This process gained momentum with South Africa's elimination ofapartheid, which culminated in the establishment of full diplomatic relations in October 1993. While relations with neighbouring Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia and Tanzania show occasional strains, Mozambique's ties to these countries remain strong.[18]
In the years immediately following its independence, Mozambique benefited from considerable assistance from some Western countries, notably the Scandinavians. The Soviet Union and its allies became Mozambique's primary economic, military and political supporters, and its foreign policy reflected this linkage. This began to change in 1983; in 1984 Mozambique joined theWorld Bank andInternational Monetary Fund. Western aid by the Scandinavian countries of Sweden,Norway,Denmark andIceland quickly replaced Soviet support.[18]Finland[79] and theNetherlands are becoming increasingly important sources of development assistance. Italy also maintains a profile in Mozambique as a result of its key role during the peace process. Relations with Portugal, the former colonial power, continue to be important because Portuguese investors play a visible role in Mozambique's economy.[18]
Mozambique is a member of theNon-Aligned Movement and ranks among the moderate members of the African bloc in the United Nations and other international organisations. Mozambique also belongs to theAfrican Union and theSouthern African Development Community. In 1994, the government became a full member of theOrganisation of the Islamic Conference, in part to broaden its base of international support but also to please the country's sizeable Muslim population. Similarly, in 1995 Mozambique joined its Anglophone neighbours in theCommonwealth of Nations. At the time it was the only nation to have joined the Commonwealth that was never part of theBritish Empire. In the same year, Mozambique became a founding member and the first president of theCommunity of Portuguese Language Countries and maintains close ties with other Portuguese-speaking countries.[18]
Historical development of real GDP per capita in Mozambique, since 1960
Mozambique is one of the poorest and most underdeveloped countries in the world, even though between 1994 and 2006 its average annual GDP growth was approximately 8%. Since 2014/15 household real consumption has decreased significantly and a sharp rise ineconomic inequality has been observed.[11] TheIMF classifies Mozambique as aheavily indebted poor country. In a 2006 survey, three-quarters of Mozambicans said that in the past five years their economic position had remained the same or become worse.[82]
Mozambique's official currency is themetical (as of October 2023, US$1 is roughly equivalent to 64 meticals) TheU.S. dollar,South African rand, and theeuro are widely accepted and used in business transactions. The minimum legal salary is around US$60 per month. Mozambique is a member of theSouthern African Development Community (SADC).[18] The SADCfree trade protocol is aimed at making the Southern African region more competitive by eliminatingtariffs and othertrade barriers. TheWorld Bank in 2007 talked of Mozambique's 'blistering pace of economic growth'. A joint donor-government study in early 2007 said 'Mozambique is generally considered an aid success story.'[83]
The resettlement of civil war refugees and successful economic reform have led to a high growth rate: the country enjoyed a remarkable recovery, achieving an average annual rate of economic growth of 8% between 1996 and 2006[84] and between 6–7% from 2006 to 2011.[85] Rapid expansion in the future hinges on several major foreign investment projects, continued economic reform, and the revival of the agriculture, transportation, and tourism sectors.[18] In 2013 about 80% of the population was employed in agriculture, the majority of whom were engaged in small-scale subsistence farming[86] which still suffered from inadequate infrastructure, commercial networks, and investment.[18] However, in 2012, more than 90% of Mozambique's arable land was stilluncultivated.
In 2013, a BBC article reported that starting in 2009, the Portuguese had been returning to Mozambique because of the growing economy in Mozambique and the poor economic situation in Portugal.[87]
More than 1,200 mostly smallstate-owned enterprises have beenprivatised. Preparations for privatisation and/or sector liberalisation were made for the remaining parastatal enterprises, including telecommunications, energy, ports, and railways. The government frequently selected a strategic foreign investor when privatising a parastatal. Additionally, customs duties have been reduced, and customs management has been streamlined and reformed. The government introduced a value-added tax in 1999 as part of its efforts to increase domestic revenues.
Mozambique's economy has been shaken by numerous corruption scandals. In July 2011, the government proposed new anti-corruption laws to criminalise embezzlement, influence peddling andgraft, following numerous instances of the theft of public money. This has been endorsed by the country's Council of Ministers. Mozambique convicted two former ministers for graft.[88] Mozambique was ranked 116 of 178 countries in anti-graft watchdogTransparency International's index of global corruption. According to a USAID report written in 2005, "the scale and scope of corruption in Mozambique are cause for alarm."[89]
In 2012, the government of Inhambane province uncovered the misappropriation of public funds by the director of the Provincial Anti-Drugs Office, Calisto Alberto Tomo. He was found to have colluded with the accountant in the Anti-Drugs Office, Recalda Guambe, to steal over 260,000 meticais between 2008 and 2010.[90] The government of Mozambique has taken steps to address the problem of corruption, and some positive developments can be observed, such as the passages of several anti-corruption bills in 2012.[91]
In 2010–2011,Anadarko Petroleum andEni discovered theMamba South gas field, recoverable reserves of 4,200 billion cubic metres (150 trillion cubic feet) of natural gas in theRovuma Basin, off the coast of northern Cabo Delgado Province. Once developed, this could make Mozambique one of the largest producers ofliquefied natural gas in the world. In January 2017, 3 firms were selected by the government for the natural gas development projects in the Rovuma gas basin. GL Africa Energy (UK) was awarded one of the tenders. It plans to build and operate a 250 MW gas-powered plant.[92][93] Production was scheduled to start in 2018.[94] Mozambique is now scheduled to begin exporting LNG globally in 2024. In 2019, developments in the Rovuma Basin, referred to as The Mozambique LNG Project, raised $19 billion from a consortium of investors to finally bring this LNG to market. The majority of the project and its associated operations have been awarded to the company, TotalEnergies.[95]
European tourists on the beach, inInhambane, Mozambique
The country's natural environment, wildlife, and historic heritage provide opportunities for beach, cultural, andeco-tourism.[96] Mozambique has a great potential for growth in its gross domestic product (GDP).[97]
The north beaches with clean water are suitable for tourism,[original research?] especially those that are very far from urban centres, such the Quirimbas Islands and the archipelago of Bazaruto.[98] The Inhambane Province attracts international divers because of the marine biodiversity and the presence ofwhale sharks andmanta rays.[99] There are several national parks, includingGorongosa National Park.[100]
Steam locomotive at Inhambane, 2009The national Mozambican airline,LAM Mozambique
There are over 30,000 km (19,000 mi) of roads, but much of the network is unpaved. Like itsCommonwealth neighbours,traffic circulates on the left, in spite of having not been colonised by the British. There is an international airport at Maputo, 21 other paved airports, and over 100 airstrips with unpaved runways. There are 3,750 km ofnavigable inland waterways. There are rail links serving principal cities and connecting the country with Malawi, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
The Mozambican railway system developed over more than a century from three different ports on the coast that served as terminals for separate lines to the hinterland. The railroads were major targets during the Mozambican Civil War, were sabotaged by RENAMO, and are being rehabilitated. Aparastatal authority,Portos e Caminhos de Ferro de Moçambique (Mozambique Ports and Railways), oversees the railway system and its connected ports, but management has been largely outsourced. Each line has its own development corridor.
As of 2005[update] there were 3,123 km of railway track, consisting of 2,983 km of1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) gauge, compatible with neighbouring rail systems, and a 140 km line of762 mm (2 ft 6 in) gauge, theGaza Railway.[101] The centralBeira–Bulawayo railway andSena railway route links theport of Beira to the landlocked countries of Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. To the north of this theport of Nacala is also linked byNacala rail to Malawi, and to the south theport of Maputo is connected by theLimpopo rail, theGoba rail and theRessano Garcia rail to Zimbabwe, Eswatini and South Africa. These networks interconnect only via neighbouring countries. A new route for coal haulage between Tete and Beira was planned to come into service by 2010,[102] and in August 2010, Mozambique andBotswana signed a memorandum of understanding to develop a 1,100 km railway through Zimbabwe, to carry coal fromSerule in Botswana to a deepwater port atTechobanine Point.[103] Newer rolling stock has been supplied by the IndianGolden Rock workshop[104] usingCentre Buffer Couplers[105] andair brakes.
Woman fetching water during the dry season from a polluted source in Machaze District of the Central Manica Province
Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique is characterised by low levels of access to animproved water source (estimated to be 51% in 2011), low levels of access to adequate sanitation (estimated to be 25% in 2011) and mostly poor service quality. In 2007 the government defined a strategy for water supply and sanitation in rural areas, where 62% of the population lives. In urban areas, water is supplied by informal small-scale providers and by formal providers.
Beginning in 1998, Mozambique reformed the formal part of the urban water supply sector through the creation of an independent regulatory agency called CRA, an asset-holding company called FIPAG and apublic-private partnership (PPP) with a company called Aguas de Moçambique.[106] The PPP covered those areas of the capital and of four other cities that had access to formal water supply systems. However, the PPP ended when the management contracts for four cities expired in 2008 and when the foreign partner of the company that serves the capital under a lease contract withdrew in 2010, claiming heavy losses. While urban water supply has received considerable policy attention, the government has no strategy for urban sanitation yet. External donors finance about 87.4% of all public investments in the sector.
The north-central provinces of Zambezia and Nampula are the most populous, with about 45% of the population. The estimated four millionMakua are the dominant group in the northern part of the country; theSena andShona (mostlyNdau andManyika) are prominent in the Zambezi valley,[18] and theTsonga people dominate southern Mozambique. Other groups includeMakonde,Yao,Swahili,Tonga,Chopi, andNguni (includingZulu).Bantu people comprise 97.8% of the population, with the rest made up ofPortuguese ancestry, Euro-Africans (mestiço people of mixed Bantu and Portuguese ancestry), and Indians.[13] Roughly 45,000 people ofIndian descent reside in Mozambique.[107]
During Portuguese colonial rule, a large minority of people of Portuguese descent lived permanently in almost all areas of the country,[108] and Mozambicans withPortuguese heritage at the time of independence numbered about 360,000.[109] Many of these left the country after independence from Portugal in 1975.[110] There are various estimates for the size ofMozambique's Chinese community, ranging from 7,000 to 12,000 as of 2007[update].[111][112]
According to a 2011 survey, the total fertility rate was 5.9 children per woman, with 6.6 in rural areas and 4.5 in urban areas.[113]
Portuguese is the official and most widely spoken language of the nation, spoken by 50.3% of the population.[115]Additionally, around 50% of Maputo speaks Portuguese as a native language.[116]
The Bantu-group languages that are indigenous to the country vary greatly in their groupings and in some cases are rather poorly appreciated and documented.[117] Apart from its lingua franca uses in the north of the country,Swahili is spoken in a small area of the coast next to the Tanzanian border; south of this, towards Moçambique Island,Kimwani, regarded as a dialect of Swahili, is used. Immediately inland of the Swahili area,Makonde is used, separated farther inland by a small strip ofMakhuwa-speaking territory from an area whereYao or ChiYao is used. Makonde and Yao belong to a different group, Yao[118] being very close to theMwera language of theRondo Plateau area in Tanzania.[119] Prepositions appear in these languages as locative prefixes prefixed to the noun and declined according to their own noun-class. SomeNyanja is used at the coast of Lake Malawi, as well as on the other side of the Lake.[120][121]
Somewhat different from all of these are the languages of the eMakhuwa group, with a loss of initial k-, which means that many nouns begin with a vowel: for example,epula = "rain".[117] There is eMakhuwa proper, with the relatedeLomwe andeChuwabo, with a smalleKoti-speaking area at the coast. In an area straddling the lower Zambezi,Sena, which belongs to the same group as Nyanja, is spoken, with areas speaking the related CiNyungwe and CiSenga further upriver.
A largeShona-speaking area extends between the Zimbabwe border and the sea: this was formerly known as the Ndau variety[122] but now uses the orthography of the Standard Shona of Zimbabwe. Apparently similar to Shona, but lacking the tone patterns of the Shona language, and regarded by its speakers as quite separate, is CiBalke, also called Rue or Barwe, used in a small area near the Zimbabwe border. South of this area are languages of theTsonga group. XiTswa orTswa occurs at the coast and inland, XiTsonga or Tsonga straddles the area around the Limpopo River, including such local dialects as XiHlanganu, XiN'walungu, XiBila, XiHlengwe, and XiDzonga. This language area extends into neighbouring South Africa. Still related to these, but distinct, are GiTonga, BiTonga, and CiCopi orChopi, spoken north of the mouth of the Limpopo, and XiRonga orRonga, spoken in the immediate region around Maputo. The languages in this group are, judging by the short vocabularies,[117] very vaguely similar to Zulu, but obviously not in the same immediate group. There are small Swazi- and Zulu-speaking areas in Mozambique immediately next to the Swaziland and KwaZulu-Natal borders.
The 2007 census found that Christians made up 59.2% of Mozambique's population, Muslims comprised 18.9% of the population, 7.3% of the people held other beliefs, mainlyanimism, and 13.9% had no religious beliefs.[13][123] A more recent government survey conducted by theDemographic and Health Surveys program in 2015 indicated that Catholicism had increased to 30.5% of the population, Muslims constituted 19.3%, and various Protestant groups a total of 44%.[124] According to 2018 estimates from theUnited States Commission on International Religious Freedom, 28% of the population is Catholic, 18% are Muslim (mostly Sunni), 15% areZionist Christians, 12% are Protestants, 7% are members of other religious groups, and 18% have no religion.[125]
The Catholic Church has established twelve dioceses (Beira, Chimoio, Gurué, Inhambane, Lichinga, Maputo, Nacala, Nampula, Pemba, Quelimane, Tete,[126] and Xai-Xai; archdioceses areBeira,Maputo andNampula). Statistics for the dioceses range from a low 5.8% Catholics in the population in theDiocese of Chimoio, to 32.50% in Quelimane diocese (Anuario catolico de Mocambique). Among the main Protestant denominations areIgreja União Baptista de Moçambique, theAssembleias de Deus, theSeventh-day Adventists, theAnglican Church of Southern Africa, the Igreja do Evangelho Completo de Deus, theIgreja Metodista Unida, theIgreja Presbiteriana de Moçambique, theIgrejas de Cristo and the Assembleia Evangélica de Deus. The work of Methodism in Mozambique started in 1890. Erwin Richards began a Methodist mission at Chicuque in Inhambane Province. The Igreja Metodista Unida em Moçambique (United Methodist Church in Mozambique) observed the 100th anniversary of Methodist presence in Mozambique in 1990. President Chissano praised the work and role of the UMC to more than 10,000 people who attended the ceremony. The United Methodist Church has tripled in size in Mozambique since 1998. There are more than 150,000 members in more than 180 congregations of the 24 districts. New pastors are ordained each year. New churches are chartered each year in each Annual Conference (north and south).[127]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has established a growing presence. It first began sending missionaries to Mozambique in 1999, and, as of April 2015, has more than 7,943 members.[128] TheBaháʼí Faith has been present in Mozambique since the early 1950s but did not openly identify itself in those years because of the strong influence of the Catholic Church which did not recognise it officially as a world religion. The independence in 1975 saw the entrance of new pioneers. In total, there are about 3,000 declared Baháʼís as of 2010[update]. Muslims are particularly present in the north of the country. They are organised in several "tariqa" orbrotherhoods. Two national organisations also exist—theConselho Islâmico de Moçambique and theCongresso Islâmico de Moçambique. There are also important Pakistani, Indian associations as well as some Shia communities. There is a very small but thriving Jewish community in Maputo.[129]
The fertility rate is at about 5.5 births per woman. Public expenditure on health was at 2.7% of the GDP in 2004, whereas private expenditure on health was at 1.3% in the same year. Health expenditure per capita was 42 US$ (PPP) in 2004. In the early 21st century there were 3 physicians per 100,000 people in the country.Infant mortality was at 100 per 1,000 births in 2005.[130] The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Mozambique is 550. This is compared with 598.8 in 2008 and 385 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 147 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5s mortality is 29. In Mozambique the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 3 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women 1 in 37.[131]
The officialHIV prevalence in 2011 was 11.5% of the population aged between 15 and 49 years. In the southern parts of Mozambique—Maputo and Gaza provinces as well as the city of Maputo—the official figures are more than twice as high as the national average. In 2011 the health authorities estimated about 1.7 million Mozambicans were HIV-positive, of whom 600,000 were in need of anti-retroviral treatment. As of December 2011, 240,000 were receiving such treatment, increasing to 416,000 in March 2014 according to the health authorities.
Mozambique has been experiencing high levels of acute food insecurity for years.[132]
Portuguese is the primary language of instruction in all Mozambican schools. All Mozambicans are required by law to attend school through the primary level; however, a lot of children do not go to primary school because they have to work for their families' subsistence farms for a living. In 2007, one million children still did not go to school, most of them from poor rural families, and almost half of all teachers were unqualified. Girls enrollment increased from 3 million in 2002 to 4.1 million in 2006 while the completion rate increased from 31,000 to 90,000, which testified a very poor completion rate.[133]
Students in front of their school inNampula, Mozambique
After grade 7, pupils must take standardised national exams to enter secondary school, which runs from eighth to 10th grade.[134] Space in Mozambican universities is extremely limited; thus most pupils who complete pre-university school do not immediately proceed on to university studies. Many go to work as teachers or are unemployed. There are also institutes that give more vocational training, specialising in agricultural, technical or pedagogical studies, which students may attend after grade 10 in lieu of a pre-university school. After independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Mozambican pupils continued to be admitted every year at Portuguese high schools, polytechnical institutes and universities, through bilateral agreements between the Portuguese government and the Mozambican government.
According to 2010 estimates, theliteracy rate was 56.1% (70.8% male and 42.8% female).[135] By 2015, this had increased to 58.8% (73.3% male and 45.4% female).[136]
Mozambique was ruled by Portugal, and they share a main language (Portuguese) and main religion (Roman Catholicism). But since most of the people of Mozambique are Bantus, most of the culture is native; for Bantus living in urban areas, there is some Portuguese influence. Mozambican culture also influences thePortuguese culture.
The Makonde are known for their wood carving and elaborate masks, which are commonly used in traditional dances. There are two different kinds of wood carvings:shetani, (evil spirits), which are mostly carved in heavyebony, tall, and elegantly curved with symbols and nonrepresentational faces; andujamaa, which are totem-type carvings which illustrate lifelike faces of people and various figures. These sculptures are usually referred to as "family trees" because they tell stories of many generations.
During the last years of the colonial period, Mozambican art reflected the oppression by the colonial power and became a symbol of resistance. After independence in 1975, modern art came into a new phase. The two best known and most influential contemporary Mozambican artists are the painterMalangatana Ngwenya and the sculptorAlberto Chissano. A lot of the post-independence art during the 1980s and 1990s reflect the political struggle, civil war, suffering, starvation, and struggle.
Dances are usually intricate, highly developed traditions throughout Mozambique. There are many different kinds of dances from tribe to tribe which are usually ritualistic in nature. The Chopi, for instance, act out battles dressed in animal skins. The men of Makua dress in colourful outfits and masks while dancing on stilts around the village for hours. Groups of women in the northern part of the country perform a traditional dance calledtufo, to celebrate Islamic holidays.[137]
Themusic of Mozambique serves many purposes, ranging from religious expression to traditional ceremonies. Musical instruments are usually handmade. Some of the instruments used in Mozambican musical expression include drums made of wood and animal skin; thelupembe, a woodwind instrument made from animal horns or wood; and themarimba, which is a kind of xylophone native to Mozambique and other parts of Africa. The marimba is a popular instrument with the Chopi of the south-central coast, who are famous for their musical skill and dance.
Headquarters of Rádio Moçambique inKaMpfumo district ofMaputo (photo 2009)
Mozambican media is heavily influenced by the government.[138] Newspapers have relatively low circulation rates because of high newspaper prices and lowliteracy rates.[138] Among the most highly circulated newspapers are state-controlled dailies, such asNoticias andDiário de Moçambique, and the weeklyDomingo.[139] Their circulation is mostly confined to Maputo.[140] Most funding and advertising revenue is given to pro-government newspapers.[138]
Radio programmes are the most influential form of media in the country because of ease of access.[138] State-owned radio stations are more popular than privately owned media. This is exemplified by the government radio station, Rádio Moçambique, the most popular station in the country.[138] It was established shortly after Mozambique's independence.[141] The television stations watched by Mozambicans are STV, TIM, andTVM. Through cable and satellite, viewers can access tens of other African, Asian, Brazilian, and European channels.[citation needed]
With a nearly 500-year presence in the country, the Portuguese have greatly influenced Mozambique's cuisine. Staples and crops such ascassava (a starchy root of Brazilian origin) andcashew nuts (also of Brazilian origin, though Mozambique was once the largest producer of these nuts), andpãozinho (pronounced[pɐ̃wˈzĩɲu], Portuguese-style buns), were brought in by the Portuguese. The use of spices and seasonings such asbay leaves,chili peppers, freshcoriander, garlic, onions,paprika, red sweet peppers, and wine were introduced by the Portuguese, as were maize, potatoes, rice, andsugarcane.espetada, the popularinteiro com piripiri (whole chicken inpiri-piri sauce),prego (steak roll),pudim (pudding), andrissóis (battered shrimp) are all Portuguese dishes commonly eaten in present-day Mozambique.
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