| Mourning dove | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Eastern spp. inFlorida | |
| Mourning Dove vocalizations | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Columbiformes |
| Family: | Columbidae |
| Genus: | Zenaida |
| Species: | Z. macroura |
| Binomial name | |
| Zenaida macroura | |
| Subspecies | |
See text | |
 | |
| Approximate distribution map Breeding Year-round Nonbreeding Introduced | |
| Synonyms | |
| |
Themourning dove (Zenaida macroura) is a member of the dovefamily,Columbidae. The bird is also known as theAmerican mourning dove, therain dove, thechueybird, and colloquially as theturtle dove, and it was once known as theCarolina pigeon andCarolina turtledove.[2] It is one of the most abundant and widespread North American birds and a popular gamebird, with more than 20 million birds (up to 70 million in some years) shot annually in the U.S., both for sport and meat. Its ability to sustain its population under such pressure is due to its prolific breeding; in warm areas, one pair may raise up to sixbroods of two young each in a single year. The wings make an unusual whistling sound upon take-off and landing, a form ofsonation. The bird is a strongflier, capable of speeds up to 88 km/h (55 mph).[3]
Mourning doves are light gray and brown and generally muted in color. Males and females are similar in appearance. The species is generallymonogamous, with twosquabs (young) per brood. Both parents incubate and care for the young. Mourning doves eat almost exclusively seeds, but the young are fedcrop milk by their parents.
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| Cladogram showing the positions of the doves in the genusZenaida.[4] |
In 1731, the English naturalistMark Catesby described and illustrated thepassenger pigeon and the mourning dove on successive pages of hisThe Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. For the passenger pigeon, he used the common name "Pigeon of passage" and the scientific LatinPalumbus migratorius; for the mourning dove he used "Turtle of Carolina" andTurtur carolinensis.[5] In 1743, the naturalistGeorge Edwards included the mourning dove with the English name "long-tail'd dove" and the Latin nameColumba macroura in hisA Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Edwards's pictures of the male and female doves were drawn from live birds that had been shipped to England from the West Indies.[6] In 1758, when the Swedish naturalistCarl Linnaeus updated hisSystema Naturae for thetenth edition, he conflated the two species. He used the Latin nameColumba macroura introduced by Edwards as thebinomial name, but included a description mainly based on Catesby. He cited Edwards's description of the mourning dove and Catesby's description of the passenger pigeon.[7][8] Linnaeus updated hisSystema Naturae again in 1766 for thetwelfth edition. He droppedColumba macroura and instead coinedColumba migratoria for the passenger pigeon,Columba cariolensis for the mourning dove, andColumba marginata for Edwards's mourning dove.[9][8]
To resolve the confusion over the binomial names of the two species,Francis Hemming proposed in 1952 that theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) secure the specific namemacroura for the mourning dove andmigratorius for the passenger pigeon, since this was the intended use by the authors on whose work Linnaeus had based his description.[10] This was accepted by the ICZN, which used itsplenary powers to designate the species for the respective names in 1955.[11]
The mourning dove is now placed in the genusZenaida, introduced in 1838 by the French naturalistCharles Lucien Bonaparte and named after his wifeZénaïde Bonaparte.[12][13] Thespecific epithet is from the Ancient Greekmakros meaning "long" and-ouros meaning "-tailed".[14]
The mourning dove is closely related to theeared dove (Zenaida auriculata) and theSocorro dove (Zenaida graysoni). Some authorities consider them a superspecies, and the three birds are sometimes classified in the separate genusZenaidura,[15] but the current classification has them as separate species in the genusZenaida. In addition, the Socorro dove has at times been considered conspecific with the mourning dove, though several differences in behavior, call, and appearance justify separation as two different species.[16] While the three species do form a subgroup ofZenaida, using a separate genus would interfere with themonophyly ofZenaida by making itparaphyletic.[15]
There are fivesubspecies:[13]
The ranges of most of the subspecies overlap slightly, with three in theUnited States orCanada.[17] The West Indian subspecies is found throughout theGreater Antilles, and is also invasive in theFlorida Keys.[17][18] The eastern subspecies is found mainly in eastern North America, as well asBermuda and theBahamas. The western subspecies are found in western North America, including parts of Mexico. The Panamanian subspecies is inCentral America. The Clarion Island subspecies is found only onClarion Island, off Mexico's Pacific coast.[18]
The mourning dove is sometimes called the "American mourning dove" to distinguish it from the distantly relatedmourning collared dove (Streptopelia decipiens) of Africa.[15] It was also formerly known as the "Carolina turtledove" and the "Carolina pigeon".[19] The "mourning" part of itscommon name comes from its doleful call.[20]
The mourning dove was thought to be the passenger pigeon's closest living relative on morphological grounds until genetic analysis showedPatagioenas pigeons are more closely related.[21][22] The mourning dove was even suggested to belong to the same genus,Ectopistes, and was listed by some authors asE. carolinensis.[23] The passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) was hunted to extinction in the early 1900s.[24][25]
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The mourning dove is a medium-sized, slender dove approximately 31 cm (12 in) in length. Mourning doves weigh 112–170 g (4.0–6.0 oz), usually closer to 128 g (4.5 oz).[26] The mourning dove has a wingspan of 37–45 cm.[27] Theelliptical wings are broad, and the head is rounded. Its tail is long and tapered ("macroura" comes from theGreek words for "large" and "tail").[28] Mourning doves have perching feet, with three toes forward and one reversed. The legs are short and reddish colored. Thebeak is short and dark, usually a brown-black hue.[17]
Theplumage is generally light gray-brown above and lighter and pinkish below. The wings have black spotting, and the outer tailfeathers are white, contrasting with the black inners. Below the eye is a distinctive crescent-shaped area of dark feathers. The eyes are dark, with light blue skin surrounding them.[17] The adult male has bright purple-pink patches on the neck sides, with light pink coloring reaching the breast. Adult males possess a distinctly bluish-grey colored crown, which females lack. Females are similar in appearance but have more brown coloring overall and are slightly smaller than males. The iridescent feather patches on the neck above the shoulders are nearly absent but can be quite vivid on males. Juvenile birds have a scaly appearance and are generally darker.[17]
Feather colors are generally believed to be relatively static, changing only by small amounts over periods of months. However, a 2011 study argued that since feathers have neither nerves or blood vessels, color changes must be caused by external stimuli. Researchers analyzed how feathers of iridescent mourning doves responded to stimulus changes of adding and evaporating water. As a result, it was discovered thatiridescent feather color changed hue, became more chromatic, and increased overall reflectance by almost 50%.Transmission electron microscopy and thin-film models revealed that color is produced bythin-film interference from a single layer ofkeratin around the edge of feather barbules, under which lies a layer of air andmelanosomes. Once the environmental conditions were changed, the most striking morphological difference was a twisting of colored barbules that exposed more of their surface area for reflection, which explains the observed increase in brightness. Overall, the researchers suggest that some plumage colors may be more changeable than previously thought possible.[29]
All five subspecies of the mourning dove look similar and are not easily distinguishable.[17] The nominate subspecies possesses shorter wings and are darker and more buff-colored than the "average" mourning dove.Z. m. carolinensis has longer wings and toes, a shorter beak, and is darker in color. The western subspecies has longer wings, a longer beak, and shorter toes, and is more muted and lighter in color. The Panama mourning dove has shorter wings and legs, a longer beak, and is grayer in color. The Clarion Island subspecies possesses larger feet, a larger beak, and is darker brown in color.[18]
This species' call is a distinctive, plaintivecooOOoo-wooo-woo-woooo, uttered by males to attract females, and it may be mistaken for the call of anowl at first. During the call, the throat of the dove swells. Close up, a grating or throat-rattling sound may be heard preceding the first coo. Other sounds include a nested call (cooOOoo) by paired males to attract their female mates to the nest sites, a greeting call (a softork) by males upon rejoining their mates, and an alarm call (a shortroo-oo) by either a male or female when threatened. In flight, the wings make a fluttery whistling sound that is hard to hear. The wing whistle is much louder and more noticeable upon take-off and landing.[17] The mourning dove can also 'clap' its wings together when taking off, in a similar manner to therock dove.[30]
The mourning dove has a largerange of nearly 11,000,000 km2 (4,200,000 sq mi).[31] The species is resident throughout theGreater Antilles, most ofMexico, theContinental United States, southernCanada, and the Atlantic archipelago ofBermuda. Much of the Canadian prairie sees these birds in summer only, and southern Central America sees them in winter only.[32] The species is avagrant in northern Canada, Alaska,[33] and South America.[15] It has been spotted as an accidental at least nine times in theWestern Palearctic with records from the British Isles (5), Sweden (2), the Azores (1), and Iceland (1).[17][34] In 1963, the mourning dove wasintroduced toHawaii, and in 1998 there was a small population inNorth Kona.[35] The mourning dove also appeared onSocorro Island, off the western coast of Mexico, in 1988, sixteen years after the Socorro dove wasextirpated from that island.[16]
The mourning dove occupies a wide variety of open and semi-open habitats, such as urban areas, farms, prairie, grassland, and lightly wooded areas. It avoidsswamps and thickforest.[33]
Most mourning dovesmigrate alongflyways over land. Birds in Canada migrate the farthest, probably wintering in Mexico or further south. Those that spend the summer further south are more sedentary, with much shorter migrations. At the southern part of their range, Mourning Doves are present year-round.[17]
Spring migration north runs from March to May. Fall migration south runs from September to November, with immatures moving first, followed by adult females and then by adult males.[32] Migration is usually during the day, in flocks, and at low altitudes.[33]
Mourning doves sunbathe or rain bathe by lying on the ground or a flat tree limb, leaning over, stretching one wing, and keeping this posture for up to twenty minutes. These birds can also water bathe in shallow pools or birdbaths.Dustbathing is common as well.
Outside the breeding season, mourning doves roost communally in densedeciduous trees orconifers. During sleep, the head rests between the shoulders, close to the body; it is not tucked under the shoulder feathers as in many other species. During the winter in Canada, roosting flights to the roosts in the evening, and out of the roosts in the morning, are delayed on colder days.[36]
Courtship begins with a noisy flight by the male, followed by a graceful, circular glide with outstretched wings and head down. After landing, the male will approach the female with a puffed-out breast, bobbing head, and loud calls. Mated pairs will oftenpreen each other's feathers.[33]
The male then leads the female to potential nest sites, and the female will choose one. The female dove builds the nest. The male will fly about, gather material, and bring it to her. The male will stand on the female's back and give the material to the female, who then builds it into the nest.[37] The nest is constructed of twigs,conifer needles, orgrass blades, and is of flimsy construction.[18] Mourning doves will sometimes requisition the unused nests of other mourning doves, other birds, or arboreal mammals such assquirrels.[38]
Most nests are intrees, both deciduous and coniferous. Sometimes, they can be found inshrubs,vines, or on artificial constructs likebuildings or hanging flower pots.[18][37] When there is no suitable elevated object, mourning doves will nest on the ground.[18]
The clutch size is almost always twoeggs.[37] Occasionally, a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair, leading to three or four eggs in the nest.[39] The eggs are white, 6.6 ml (0.23 imp fl oz; 0.22 US fl oz), 2.57–2.96 cm (1.01–1.17 in) long, 2.06–2.30 cm (0.81–0.91 in) wide, 6–7 g (0.21–0.25 oz) at laying (5–6% of female body mass). Both sexes incubate, the male from morning to afternoon, and the female the rest of the day and at night. Mourning doves are devoted parents; nests are rarely left unattended by the adults.[37]
Incubation takes two weeks. The hatched young, called squabs, are stronglyaltricial, being helpless at hatching and covered withdown.[37] Both parents feed the squabspigeon's milk (crop milk) for the first 3–4 days of life. Thereafter, the crop milk is gradually augmented by seeds.Fledging takes place in about 11–15 days, before the squabs are fully grown but after they are capable of digesting adult food.[38] They stay nearby to be fed by their father for up to two weeks after fledging.[33]
Mourning doves are prolific breeders. In warmer areas, the birds may raise up to six broods in a season.[33] This fast breeding is essential because mortality is high. Each year, mortality can reach 58% a year for adults and 69% for the young.[39]
The mourning dove is generally monogamous and forms strong pair bonds.[39]
Mourning doves eat almost exclusivelyseeds, which make up more than 99% of their diet.[37] Rarely, they will eatsnails orinsects.[40] Mourning doves generally eat enough to fill theircrops and then fly away to digest while resting. They often swallow grit such as finegravel orsand to assist withdigestion. The species usually forages on the ground, walking but not hopping.[33] At bird feeders, mourning doves are attracted to one of the largest ranges of seed types of any North American bird, with a preference forrapeseed, corn,millet,safflower, andsunflower seeds. Mourning doves do not dig or scratch for seeds, though they will push aside ground litter; instead, they eat what is readily visible.[18][37] They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from there.[33]
Mourning doves show a preference for the seeds of certain species of plant over others. Foods taken in preference to others includepine nuts,sweetgum seeds, and the seeds ofpokeberry,amaranth,canary grass,corn,sesame, andwheat.[18] When their favorite foods are absent, mourning doves will eat the seeds of other plants, includingbuckwheat,rye,goosegrass andsmartweed.[18]
The primary predators of this species are diurnalbirds of prey, such asfalcons andhawks. During nesting,corvids,grackles, housecats, orrat snakes will prey on their eggs.[39]Cowbirds rarelyparasitize mourning dove nests. Mourning doves reject slightly under a third of cowbird eggs in such nests, and the mourning dove's vegetarian diet is unsuitable for cowbirds.[41]
Mourning doves can be afflicted with several different diseases andparasites, includingtapeworms,nematodes,mites, andlice. The mouth-dwelling parasiteTrichomonas gallinae is particularly severe. While a mourning dove will sometimes host it without symptoms,T. gallinae often causes yellowish growth in the mouth and esophagus that eventuallystarves the host to death.Avian pox is a common, insect-vectored disease.[42]
The number of individual mourning doves was estimated to be approximately 475 million in 1994,[43] More recent reports indicate that there were approximately 346 million doves in the US as of September 2023.[44] The mourning dove is considered to be ofleast concern due to its large population and range, meaning that the species is not at immediate risk.[31] As agamebird, the mourning dove is well-managed, with more than 20 million (and up to 40–70 million) shot by hunters each year.[45] However, reporting cautions that mourning doves are in decline in the western United States,[citation needed] and susceptible everywhere in the country[failed verification] due tolead poisoning as they eat spent shot leftover in hunting fields.[failed verification] In some cases, the fields are specifically planted with a favored seed plant to lure them to those sites.[46][47][failed verification]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Mourning doves weigh 4–6 ounces, usually close to the lesser weight.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Estimates of absolute abundance are available since 2007 and indicate that there were approximately 346 million doves in the US as of 1 September 2023.
{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
