Amotorcycle (motorbike,bike, or, if three-wheeled, atrike) is a two or three-wheeledmotor vehiclesteered by ahandlebar from a saddle-style seat.[1][2][3]
Globally, motorcycles are comparable numerically to cars as a method of transport: in 2021, approximately 58.6 million new motorcycles were sold around the world,[6] while 66.7 million cars were sold over the same period.[7]
There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes. There is often aracing counterpart to each type, such asroad racing and street bikes, ormotocross including dirt bikes.
Street bikes includecruisers,sportbikes,scooters andmopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such asmotocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like thedual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.
Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.
In some countries the use ofpillions (rear seats) is restricted.
The inventors called their invention theReitwagen ("riding car"). It was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle.[12][13]
Butler's Patent Velocycle
The first commercial design for a self-propelled cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle, conceived ofEdward Butler inEngland in 1884.[14] He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at theStanley Cycle Show in London in 1884. The vehicle was built by theMerryweather Fire Engine company inGreenwich, in 1888.[15]
The Butler Petrol Cycle was a three-wheeled vehicle, with the rear wheel directly driven by a5⁄8 hp (0.47 kW), 40 cc (2.4 cu in) displacement,2+1⁄4 in × 5 in (57 mm × 127 mm) bore × stroke,flat twinfour-stroke engine (withmagneto ignition replaced by coil and battery) equipped withrotary valves and a float-fedcarburettor (five years beforeMaybach) andAckermann steering, all of which were state of the art at the time. Starting was by compressed air. The engine was liquid-cooled, with aradiator over the rear driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of athrottle valve lever. No braking system was fitted; the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever; the weight of the machine was then borne by two small castor wheels. The driver was seated between the front wheels. It was not, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing.[16]
Many authorities have excludedsteam powered,electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a 'motorcycle', and credit the DaimlerReitwagen as the world's first motorcycle.[17][18][19] Given the rapid rise in use of electric motorcycles worldwide,[20] defining only internal-combustion powered two-wheelers as 'motorcycles' is increasingly problematic. The first (petroleum fueled) internal-combustion motorcycles, like the GermanReitwagen, were, however, also the first practical motorcycles.[18][21][22]
If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first motorcycles built seem to be the FrenchMichaux-Perreaux steam velocipede which patent application was filed in December 1868,[12][13] constructed around the same time as the AmericanRoper steam velocipede, built bySylvester H. Roper ofRoxbury, Massachusetts,[12][13]who had been demonstrating his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. since 1867.[10] Roper built about 10 steam cars and cycles from the 1860s until his death in 1896.[19]
In 1894,Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle (German:Motorrad).[12][13][19][23]Excelsior Motor Company, originally a bicycle manufacturing company based inCoventry, England, began production of their first motorcycle model in 1896.
In the early period of motorcycle history, many producers ofbicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine. As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins, the number of motorcycle producers increased. Many of the nineteenth-century inventors who worked on early motorcycles often moved on to other inventions. Daimler and Roper, for example, both went on to develop automobiles.
1902 Orient motocycle
At the end of the 19th century the first major mass-production firms were set up. In 1898,Triumph Motorcycles in England began producing motorbikes, and by 1903 it was producing over 500 bikes. Other British firms wereRoyal Enfield,Norton,Douglas Motorcycles andBirmingham Small Arms Company who began motorbike production in 1899, 1902, 1907 and 1910, respectively.[24]Indian began production in 1901 andHarley-Davidson was established two years later. By the outbreak of World War I, the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was Indian,[25][26]producing over 20,000 bikes per year.[27]
During the First World War, motorbike production was greatly ramped up for the war effort to supply effective communications with front line troops. Messengers on horses were replaced withdespatch riders on motorcycles carrying messages, performing reconnaissance and acting as a military police. American company Harley-Davidson was devoting over 50% of its factory output toward military contract by the end of the war. The British company Triumph Motorcycles sold more than 30,000 of itsTriumph Type H model toallied forces during the war. With the rear wheel driven by a belt, the Model H was fitted with a 499 cc (30.5 cu in) air-cooledfour-stroke single-cylinder engine. It was also the first Triumph withoutpedals.[28][better source needed]
The Model H in particular, is regarded by many as having been the first "modern motorcycle".[29] Introduced in 1915 it had a 550 cc side-valve four-stroke engine with a three-speed gearbox and belt transmission. It was so popular with its users that it was nicknamed the "Trusty Triumph".[30]
By 1920, Harley-Davidson was the largest manufacturer,[31] with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries.[32][33]
Amongst many British motorcycle manufacturers, Chater-Lea with its twin-cylinder models followed by its large singles in the 1920s stood out. Initially, using converted a Woodmann-designed OHV Blackburne engine it became the first 350 cc to exceed 100 mph (160 km/h), recording 100.81 mph (162.24 km/h) over the flying kilometre during April 1924.[7] Later, Chater-Lea set a world record for the flying kilometre for 350 cc and 500 cc motorcycles at 102.9 mph (165.6 km/h) for the firm. Chater-Lea produced variants of these world-beating sports models and became popular among racers at the Isle of Man TT. Today, the firm is probably best remembered for its long-term contract to manufacture and supply AA Patrol motorcycles and sidecars.[citation needed]
By the late 1920s or early 1930s,DKW in Germany took over as the largest manufacturer.[34][35][36]
In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the "dustbin fairing" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design.NSU andMoto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development, both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time.[37]NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quitGrand Prix motorcycle racing.[38]
Moto Guzzi produced competitive race machines, and until the end of 1957 had a succession of victories.[39] The following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by theFIM in the light of the safety concerns.
From the 1960s through the 1990s, small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result ofEast GermanMZs Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s.[40]
In the 21st century, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by Indian and Japanese motorcycle companies. In addition to the large capacity motorcycles, there is a large market in smaller capacity (less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries and produced in China and India.[citation needed] A Japanese example is the 1958Honda Super Cub, which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008.[41]Today, this area is dominated by mostlyIndian companies withHero MotoCorp emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two wheelers. ItsSplendor model has sold more than 8.5 million to date.[42] Other major producers areBajaj andTVS Motors.[43]
Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on asteel oraluminiumframe,telescopic forks holding the front wheel, anddisc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol-poweredengine typically consisting of between one and fourcylinders (and less commonly, up to eight cylinders) coupled to amanual five- or six-speedsequential transmission drives theswingarm-mounted rear wheel by achain,driveshaft, orbelt. The repair can be done using amotorcycle lift.
Motorcycle fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style.[44] A streamlined, fully faired Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved 470 mpg‑US (0.50 L/100 km; 560 mpg‑imp) in theCraig Vetter Fuel Economy Challenge "on real highways – in real conditions".[45]Due to low engine displacements (100–200 cc (6.1–12.2 cu in)), and high power-to-mass ratios, motorcycles offer good fuel economy. Under conditions of fuel scarcity like 1950s Britain and modern developing nations, motorcycles claim large shares of the vehicle market. In the United States, the average motorcycle fuel economy is 44 miles per US gallon (19 km per liter).[46]
Very high fuel economy equivalents are often derived by electric motorcycles. Electric motorcycles are nearly silent,zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles. Operating range and top speed are limited by battery technology.[47]Fuel cells and petroleum-electrichybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric drive system.
A 2013 survey of 4,424 readers of the USConsumer Reports magazine collected reliability data on 4,680 motorcycles purchased new from 2009 to 2012.[48] The most common problem areas wereaccessories,brakes, electrical (includingstarters,charging,ignition), andfuel systems, and thetypes of motorcycles with the greatest problems were touring, off-road/dual sport, sport-touring, and cruisers.[48] There were not enough sport bikes in the survey for astatistically significant conclusion, though the data hinted at reliability as good as cruisers.[48] These results may be partially explained by accessories including such equipment as fairings, luggage, and auxiliary lighting, which are frequently added to touring, adventure touring/dual sport and sport touring bikes.[49] Trouble with fuel systems is often the result of improper winter storage, and brake problems may also be due to poor maintenance.[48] Of the five brands with enough data to draw conclusions, Honda,Kawasaki and Yamaha were statistically tied, with 11 to 14% of those bikes in the survey experiencing major repairs.[48] Harley-Davidsons had a rate of 24%, while BMWs did worse, with 30% of those needing major repairs.[48] There were not enough Triumph andSuzuki motorcycles surveyed for a statistically sound conclusion, though it appeared Suzukis were as reliable as the other three Japanese brands while Triumphs were comparable to Harley-Davidson and BMW.[48] Three-fourths of the repairs in the survey cost less than US$200 and two-thirds of the motorcycles were repaired in less than two days.[48] In spite of their relatively worse reliability in this survey, Harley-Davidson and BMW owners showed the greatest owner satisfaction, and three-fourths of them said they would buy the same bike again, followed by 72% of Honda owners and 60 to 63% of Kawasaki and Yamaha owners.[48]
Two-wheeled motorcycles stay upright while rolling due to a physical property known asconservation of angular momentum in the wheels. Angular momentum points along the axle, and it "wants" to stay pointing in that direction.
Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions. For example, one with a longer wheelbase provides the feeling of more stability by responding less to disturbances.[50]Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling.
Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns. This lean is induced by the method known ascountersteering, in which the rider momentarily steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn. This practice is counterintuitive and therefore often confusing to novices – and even many experienced motorcyclists.[51][52][53]
With such shortwheelbase, motorcycles can generate enough torque at the rear wheel, and enough stopping force at the front wheel, to lift the opposite wheel off the road. These actions, if performed on purpose, are known aswheelies andstoppies (or endos) respectively.
Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either asOEM (factory-fitted) oraftermarket. Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle's appearance, safety, performance, or comfort, and may include anything frommobile electronics tosidecars andtrailers.
Wearing a motorcycle helmet (which is a legal requirement in many countries) reduces the risks of death or head injury in a motorcycle crash.
Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles or trucks and buses.United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from theFatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars, 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles. For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles – four times higher than for cars.[56]The same data shows that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars, whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47 which is 28 times higher than for cars (37 times more deaths per mile travelled in 2007).[9]Furthermore, for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have dropped for passenger cars.
The most common configuration of motorcycle accidents in the United States is when a motorist pulls out or turns in front of a motorcyclist, violating their right-of-way.[57] This is sometimes called aSMIDSY, an acronym formed from the motorists' common response of "Sorry mate, I didn't see you".[58]Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their visibility to other traffic, keeping to the speed limits, and not consumingalcohol or otherdrugs before riding.[59]
The United Kingdom has several organisations dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training beyond what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle licence test. These include theInstitute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and theRoyal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications may benefit from reduced insurance costs.[60]
In South Africa, theThink Bike campaign is dedicated to increasing both motorcycle safety and the awareness of motorcycles on the country's roads. The campaign, while strongest in the Gauteng province, has representation in Western Cape, KwaZulu Natal and the Free State. It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects such as the annual Motorcycle Toy Run.[61]
Motorcycle safety education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations. Most states use the courses designed by theMotorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), whileOregon and Idaho developed their own. All of the training programs include a Basic Rider Course, an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course.
In Canada, motorcycle rider training is compulsory inQuebec andManitoba only, but all provinces and territories havegraduated licence programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience. Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province. Without the Motorcycle Safety Course the chance of getting insurance for the motorcycle is very low. TheCanada Safety Council, a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council.[67] Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums.
Motorcyclists and motor scooter riders are also exposed to an increased risk of suffering hearing damage such ashearing loss andtinnitus (ringing ears).[68][69] The noise is caused by wind noise while riding, rolling noise from the tyres and the engine itself.[70] The helmet only provides insufficient protection against high sound pressure levels.[71] Medicine (as of 2024) is not able to cure hearing damage. Wearing hearing protection, such as special earplugs for motorcyclists, can help prevent hearing damage.
BMW C1, with a more upright seating positionBombardier Can-Am Spyder, showing location of rider on the trike
The motorcyclist's riding position depends on rider body-geometry (anthropometry) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself. These factors create a set of three basic postures.[72]
Sport – the rider leans forward into the wind and the weight of the upper torso is supported by the rider's core at low speed and air pressure at high speed.[73] The footpegs are below the rider or to the rear. The reduced frontal area cuts wind resistance and allows higher speeds. At low-speed in this position the rider's arms may bear some of the weight of the rider's torso, which can be problematic.
Standard – the rider sits upright or leans forward slightly. The feet are below the rider. These are motorcycles that are not specialised to one task, so they do not excel in any particular area.[74][75] The standard posture is used withtouring and commuting as well as dirt and dual-sport bikes, and may offer advantages for beginners.[76]
Cruiser – the rider sits at a lower seat height with the upper torso upright or leaning slightly rearward. Legs are extended forwards, sometimes out of reach of the regular controls on cruiser pegs. The low seat height can be a consideration for new or short riders. Handlebars tend to be high and wide. The emphasis is on comfort while compromising cornering ability because of low ground clearance and the greater likelihood of scraping foot pegs, floor boards, or other parts if turns are taken at the speeds other motorcycles can more readily accomplish.[77][78]
Factors of a motorcycle'sergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars. Factors in a rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm, thigh and leg length, and overall rider height.
A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful, larger vehicles, includingscooter type motorcycles.[79] Many jurisdictions include some forms ofthree-wheeled cars as motorcycles.
InNigeria, motorcycles, popularly referred to asOkada have been subject of many controversies with regards to safety and security followed by restriction of movement in many states. In 2020, it was banned inLagos, Nigeria's most populous city.[80][81]
Motorcycles and scooters' low fuel consumption has attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those affected by increased fuel prices.[82][83]Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a "Vespanomics" website and platform, claiming lower per-mile carbon emissions of 0.4 lb/mile (113 g/km) less than the average car, a 65% reduction, and better fuel economy.[84]
United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters),[86] the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734. The average "Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions" for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531. 54% of the tested 2007-model motorcycles were equipped with a catalytic converter.
The following table shows maximum acceptable legal emissions of the combination of hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and carbon monoxide for new motorcycles sold in the United States with 280 cc or greaterpiston displacement.[87]
Tier
Model year
HC+NOx (g/km)
CO (g/km)
Tier 1
2006–2009
1.4
12.0
Tier 2
2010 and later
0.8
12.0
The maximum acceptable legal emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide for new Class I and II motorcycles (50 cc–169 cc and 170 cc–279 cc respectively) sold in the United States are as follows:[87]
European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars.[88] New motorcycles must meet Euro 5 standards,[89] while cars must meet Euro 6D-temp standards. Motorcycle emission controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro 5+ in 2024.[90]
InAsia, motorcycles are a common mode of transportation and are putting significant pressure on the region's environment.[91][92] With a massive number of motorcycles, they contribute significantly togreenhouse gas emissions andurban air pollution.[92][93] InIndia, road transport accounts for about 12% of the country's energy-related CO₂ emissions.[94] InVietnam, motorcycles contribute up to 87% of the CO emissions and 94% of hydrocarbons (HC) released by vehicles inHanoi andHo Chi Minh City.[95][96][97] Environmental studies show that motorcycles in Vietnam contribute approximately 29% of NOx, 90% of CO, 65% of NMVOC, and nearly 38% of PM dust in total traffic emissions.[98][99][100] InThailand, gasoline-powered motorcycles are reported to emit significantly higher pollution per kilometer compared to gasoline-powered cars, exacerbating urban smog.[101][102] InSingapore, the NEA reported that while motorcycles account for only 15 percent of vehicles, they contribute to over 53 percent of carbon monoxide emissions from vehicles.[103][104]
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^"motorcycle, n.".Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford University Press. March 2009.1. A two-wheeled motor-driven road vehicle, resembling a bicycle but powered by an internal-combustion engine; (now) spec. one with an engine capacity, top speed, or weight greater than that of a moped.
^Gaetano 2004, pp. 34–25 "[W]ith the same disturbance, the rider with a longer wheelbase will feel less oscillating movement on the handlebars, and therefore, will have a perception of greater stability on the motorcycle."
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^Davis & Anthony 2011, p. 25 "The [sportbike] rider posture is usually canted severely forwrd with his hands pressing onto the handlebar grips, which are designed to keep him over the gasoline tank, a position not intended to maximize comfort. This posture is aerodynamically efficient at high speeds, when wind assists the rider by supporting his body, but at lower speeds quickly results in rider fatigue and stressed wrists."
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2003.ISBN978-0-19-860564-5.motor scootern a light motorcycle, usually with small wheels and a curved metal cover at the front to protect the rider's legs
Collins English Dictionary and Thesaurus (3rd ed.). Glasgow: Harper Collins Publications. 2004. p. 776.ISBN0-00-718139-6.motor scootern a light motorcycle with small wheels and an enclosed engine. Often shortened toscooter
Chambers Concise Dictionary. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrup Publishers. 2004. p. 1084.ISBN0-550-10072-5.2. (in fullmotor scooter) a small-wheeled motorcycle with a protective front shield curving back to form a support for the feet
^Leonidas, Ntziachristos; Savas, Geivanidis; Zissis, Samaras; Anastasios, Xanthopoulos; Heinz, Steven; Bernd, Bugsel (September 2009).Study on possible new measures concerning motorcycle emissions(PDF) (Report). p. 16.Archived(PDF) from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved27 July 2020.
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