Morus, agenus of flowering plants in the familyMoraceae, consists of 19 species ofdeciduous trees commonly known asmulberries, growing wild and under cultivation in manytemperate world regions.[1][2][3][4] Generally, the genus has 64 subordinate taxa,[5] though the three most common are referred to as white, red, and black, originating from the color of their dormant buds and not necessarily the fruit color (Morus alba,M. rubra, andM. nigra, respectively), with numerouscultivars and some taxa currently unchecked and awaiting taxonomic scrutiny.[6][5]M. alba is native toSouth Asia, but is widely distributed acrossEurope,Southern Africa,South America, andNorth America.[2]M. alba is also the species most preferred by thesilkworm. It is regarded as aninvasive species in Brazil, the United States and some states of Australia.[2][7]
The closely related genusBroussonetia is also commonly known as mulberry, notably thepaper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera).[8]
Despite their similar appearance, mulberries are not closely related toraspberries orblackberries. All three species belong to theRosales order. But while the mulberry is a tree belonging to theMoraceae family (also including thefig,jackfruit, and other fruits), raspberries and blackberries arebrambles and belong to theRosaceae family.[9]
Mulberries are fast-growing when young, and can grow to 24 metres (79 feet) tall.[2][6] Theleaves are alternately arranged, simple, and often lobed and serrated on the margin. Lobes are more common on juvenile shoots than on mature trees.[2][6] The trees can bemonoecious ordioecious.[6]
The mulberry fruit is amultiple, about 2–3 centimetres (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 inches) long.[2][6] Immature fruits are white, green, or pale yellow.[6] The fruit turns from pink to red while ripening, then dark purple or black, and has a sweet flavor when fully ripe.[2][6]
The taxonomy ofMorus is complex and disputed.Fossils ofMorus appear in thePliocene record of theNetherlands.[10] Over 150 species names have been published, and although differing sources may cite different selections of accepted names, fewer than 20 are accepted by the vast majority of botanical authorities.Morus classification is further complicated by widespreadhybridisation, wherein the hybrids are fertile.[citation needed]
Black mulberry was imported to Britain in the 17th century in the hopes that it would be useful in the cultivation of silkworms.[12] It was much used infolk medicine, especially in the treatment oftapeworms.[13]
The United States has native red mulberries,[14] as well as imported black and white mulberries. In North America, the white mulberry is considered an invasive exotic and has taken over extensive tracts from native plant species, including the red mulberry.[2][15]
Mulberries are also widespread inGreece, particularly in thePeloponnese, which in theMiddle Ages was known asMorea, deriving from the Greek word for the tree (μουριά,mouria).
Mulberries can be grown from seed, and this is often advised, as seedling-grown trees are generally of better shape and health.[citation needed] Mulberry trees grown from seed can take up to ten years to bear fruit. Mulberries are most often planted from large cuttings, which root readily. The mulberry plants allowed to grow tall have acrown height of 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 ft)[citation needed] from ground level and a stem girth of 10–13 cm (4–5 in). They are specially raised with the help of well-grownsaplings 8–10 months old of any of the varieties recommended for rainfed areas like S-13 (for red loamy soil) or S-34 (black cotton soil), which are tolerant to drought or soil-moisture stress conditions. Usually, the plantation is raised and in block formation with a spacing of 1.8 by 1.8 m (6 by 6 ft), or 2.4 by 2.4 m (8 by 8 ft), as plant-to-plant and row-to-row distances. The plants are usually pruned once a year during themonsoon season to a height of 1.5–1.8 m (5–6 ft) and allowed to grow with a maximum of 8–10 shoots at the crown.[citation needed]
Mulberry treescion wood can easily begrafted onto other mulberry trees during the winter, when the tree is dormant. One common scenario is converting a problematic male mulberry tree to an allergy-free female tree, by grafting all-female mulberry tree scions to a male mulberry that has been pruned back to the trunk.[18] However, any new growth from below the graft(s) must be removed, as they would be from the original male mulberry tree.[19]
All parts of the plant besides the ripe fruit can exude a milky sap (latex) which is mildly toxic if ingested, causing digestive distress and, at larger doses, hallucinations.[20][21][22] It is also an irritant and may cause a skin rash on contact.[23] Unripe green fruit may cause nausea, cramps, and behallucinogenic.[24] The berries have alaxative effect; too many will cause diarrhea.[25]
Some North American cities have banned the planting of mulberries because of the large amounts of pollen they produce, posing a potential health hazard for somepollen allergy sufferers.[26] Only the male mulberry trees produce pollen; this lightweight pollen can be inhaled deeply into the lungs, sometimes triggeringasthma.[27][28] Conversely, female mulberry trees produce all-female flowers, which draw pollen and dust from the air. Because of this pollen-absorbing feature, all-female mulberry trees have anOPALS allergy scale rating of just 1 (lowest level of allergy potential), and some consider it "allergy-free".[27]
Raw mulberries are 88% water, 10%carbohydrates, 1%protein, and less than 1%fat. In a 100-gram (3.5-ounce) reference amount, raw mulberries provide 43 calories, 44% of theDaily Value (DV) forvitaminC, and 14% of the DV foriron; othermicronutrients are insignificant in quantity.[29]
The leaves are harvested three or four times a year by a leaf-picking method under rain-fed or semi-arid conditions, depending on the monsoon. The leaves are useful as animal fodder. The tree branches pruned in the fall (autumn; after the leaves have fallen) are cut and used to make durable baskets supporting agriculture andanimal husbandry.[citation needed]
As the fruit matures, mulberries change in texture and color, becoming succulent, plump, and juicy, resembling ablackberry.[6] The color of the fruit does not distinguish the mulberry species, as mulberries may be white, lavender or black in color. The fruit of the black mulberry (native to southwest Asia) and the red mulberry (native to eastern North America) have distinct flavors.[32] White mulberry fruits are typically sweet, but not tart, while red mulberries are usually deep red, sweet, and juicy. Black mulberries are large and juicy, with balanced sweetness and tartness.[6] The fruit of the East Asian white mulberry – a species extensively naturalized in urban regions of eastern North America – has a different flavor, sometimes characterized as refreshing and a little tart, with a bit of gumminess to it and a hint ofvanilla.[32][better source needed]
Mulberries are used in pies, tarts, wines,cordials, andherbal teas.[2][6]Jams andsherbets are often made from the fruit in theOld World. In spring, new tender twigs are semisweet and can be eaten raw or cooked.[33]
InArmenia, mulberries are common, with wide usage in homemadeoghi (moonshine)production, known astti oghi, and syrup known as doshab.[34]
The Ancient Greeks and Romans cultivated the mulberry for silkworms; at least as early as 220AD, EmperorElagabalus wore a silk robe.[41] English clergy wore silk vestments from about 1500 onwards.[41] Mulberry and the silk industry played a role incolonial Virginia.[41]
Mulberry fruit color derives fromanthocyanins, which have unknown effects in humans.[42] Anthocyanins are responsible for the attractive colors of fresh plant foods, including orange, red, purple, black, and blue.[42] These colors are water-soluble and easily extractable, yielding naturalfood colorants.[2] Due to a growing demand for natural food colorants, they have numerous applications in the food industry.[3][42]
A cheap and industrially feasible method has been developed to extract anthocyanins from mulberry fruit that could be used as a fabric dye or food colorant of highcolor value.[2] Scientists found that, of 31 Chinese mulberry cultivars tested, the total anthocyanin yield varied from 148 to 2725 mg/L of fruit juice.[43] Sugars, acids, and vitamins of the fruit remained intact in the residual juice after removal of the anthocyanins, indicating that the juice may be used for other food products.[43][2]
exploration and collection of fruit yielding mulberry species
their characterization, cataloging, and evaluation for anthocyanin content by using traditional, as well as modern, means andbiotechnology tools
developing an information system about these cultivars and varieties
training and global coordination of genetic stocks
evolving suitable breeding strategies to improve the anthocyanin content in potential breeds by collaboration with various research stations in the field of sericulture, plant genetics, and breeding, biotechnology andpharmacology
During the Angkorian age of theKhmer Empire ofSoutheast Asia, monks at Buddhist temples made paper from the bark of mulberry trees. The paper was used to make books, known askraing.[45]
Tengujo is the thinnest paper in the world. It is produced in Japan and made with kozo (stems of mulberry trees).[46] Traditional Japanesewashi paper is often created from parts of the mulberry tree.[47]
ABabylonianetiological myth, whichOvid incorporated into hisMetamorphoses, attributes the reddish-purple colour of the mulberry fruits to the tragic deaths of the loversPyramus and Thisbe. Meeting under a mulberry tree (probably the nativeMorus nigra),[49] Thisbe dies by suicide by sword after Pyramus does the same, he having believed, on finding her bloodstained cloak, that she was killed by a lion. Their splashed blood stained the previously white fruit, and the gods forever changed the mulberry's colour to honour their forbidden love.[49]
^J.M. Suttie (2002)."Morus alba L." United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived fromthe original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved8 March 2020.
^"Rubus L."Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2021.Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved3 September 2024.
Grieve, Margaret (1971) [First published 1931, London: Harcourt, Brace & Company]."Mulberry, Common". In C. F. Leyel (ed.).A Modern Herbal. Vol. I (Facsimile ed.). New York: Dover Publications.ISBN0-486-22798-7.
^Boning, Charles R. (2006).Florida's Best Fruiting Plants: Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. Sarasota, Florida, US: Pineapple Press, Inc. p. 153.
^Ogren, Thomas Leo (2003).Safe Sex in the Garden: and Other Propositions for an Allergy-Free World. Berkeley, California, US: Ten Speed Press. pp. 22–23.ISBN1-58008-314-5.
^Hampton, Nan (18 August 2009)."Toxic effect of mulberry fruits and sap". Ask Mr Smarty Plants.Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved2 March 2025.The toxic parts are the unripe berries and the white sap from any part. The symptoms are hallucinations and stomach upset.
^ab"Is White Mulberry Poisonous?".The Poison Post. Washington, DC: National Capital Poison Center. March 2024. Retrieved2 March 2025.
^"White mulberry –Morus alba".Ohio Perennial and Biennial Weed Guide. The Ohio State University. Archived fromthe original on 12 April 2012. Retrieved20 October 2012.
^ab"Mulberries, raw". (Data Type: SR Legacy Food; Category: Fruits and Fruit Juices).FoodData Central. U.S. Department of Agriculture – Agricultural Research Service. April 2019.Archived from the original on 1 December 2024.
^"White Mulberry Leaf: Usefulness and Safety".NIH National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. September 2023. Archived fromthe original on 23 January 2025.Preparations from white mulberry leaves are sold as dietary supplements for controlling weight and blood glucose.
^abcLyle, Katie Letcher (2010) [2004].The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them (2nd ed.). Guilford, Connecticut, US:FalconGuides. p. 103.ISBN978-1-59921-887-8.OCLC560560606.
^Fuks, Daniel; Amichay, Oriya; Weiss, Ehud (27 January 2020). "Innovation or preservation? Abbasid aubergines, archaeobotany, and the Islamic Green Revolution".Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences.12 (2): 50.Bibcode:2020ArAnS..12...50F.doi:10.1007/s12520-019-00959-5.ISSN1866-9565.
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