| Morant Bay rebellion | |
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 Statue of Paul Bogle in Morant Bay, Jamaica | |
| Location | Morant Bay,Jamaica |
| Date | 11 October 1865; 159 years ago (11 October 1865) |
17°52′55″N76°24′27″W / 17.8819°N 76.4074°W /17.8819; -76.4074
TheMorant Bay Rebellion (11 October 1865) began with a protest march to the courthouse by hundreds of people led by preacherPaul Bogle inMorant Bay, Jamaica.[1] Some were armed with sticks and stones. After seven men were shot and killed by the volunteer militia, the protesters attacked and burned the courthouse and nearby buildings. Twenty-five people died. Over the next two days, poorfreedmen rose in rebellion across most ofSt. Thomas-in-the-East parish.[1]
The Jamaicans were protesting against injustice and widespread poverty. Most freedmen were prevented from voting by highpoll taxes, and their living conditions had worsened following crop damage by floods,cholera andsmallpox epidemics, and a long drought. A few days before the march, when police tried to arrest a man for disrupting a trial, a fight broke out against them by spectators. Officials then issued a warrant for the arrest of preacher Bogle, who had called for reforms, and was charged with inciting to riot.
GovernorEdward John Eyre declaredmartial law in the area, ordering in troops to hunt down the rebels. They killed many black individuals with an initial death toll of more than 400. Troops arrested more than 300 persons, including Bogle. Many of these were also innocent but were quickly tried and executed under martial law; both men and women were punished by whipping and long sentences. This was the most severe suppression of unrest in the history of theBritish West Indies.[2] The governor hadGeorge William Gordon, a mixed-race representative of the parish in theHouse of Assembly, arrested in Kingston and brought back to Morant Bay, where he tried the politician under martial law. Gordon was quickly convicted and executed.
The violent suppression and numerous executions generated a fierce debate in England, with some protesting about the unconstitutional actions of the governor John Eyre, and others praising him for his response to a crisis. The rebellion and its suppression remain controversial, and it is frequently discussed by specialists in black and colonial studies.
Slavery in Jamaica wasabolished on 1 August 1834 with the passage of theSlavery Abolition Act. The act also stipulated that all formerly enslaved persons in Jamaica over the age of six would work asapprentices for a period of four to six years for their former enslavers, thoughBritish abolitionists protested against the apprenticeship system and it was fully abolished by 1 August 1838.
This date marked the start of Jamaicans formerly in the apprenticeship system being allowed to choose their employer and profession; though they also gained theright to vote, most Jamaicans could not afford to pay thepoll tax required to participate inJamaica's political system. The poll tax was introduced by thecolonial government todisfranchise the majority of emancipated Jamaicans, being fearful of causing an anti-colonial uprising (such as theHaitian Revolution) if they granted too much political power.[3][4]
During the election of 1864, fewer than 2,000 black Jamaican men were eligible to vote (no women could vote at the time) out of a total population of more than 436,000, in which blacks outnumbered whites by a ratio of 32:1. Prior to the rebellion, conditions in Jamaica had been worsening for poor blacks. In 1864 there were several floods that ruined many crops, while 1865 marked the end of a decade in which the island had been overwhelmed by plagues ofcholera andsmallpox. A two-yeardrought preceding 1865 made economic conditions worse for much of the population of survivors of slavery and their descendants. Several bankruptcies were declared in the sugar industry, causing a loss of jobs and widening the economic void.[5]
Tensions between white planters and black Jamaicans increased, and rumours began circulating among the freedmen that white planters intended to restore slavery. Gordon criticized Eyre's draconian punishments such asflogging and thetreadmill for crimes such as stealing food. He warned that "If we are to be governed by such a Governor much longer, the people will have to fly to arms and become self-governing."[6]
In 1865, Dr.Edward Underhill, Secretary of theBaptist Missionary Society of Great Britain, wrote a letter to theColonial Office in London in order to describe Jamaica's poor state of affairs for the mass of people. This letter was later shown to Jamaica's GovernorJohn Eyre, who immediately tried to deny the truth of its statements. Jamaica's poor black people learned of the letter and began organizing in "Underhill Meetings". Peasants inSaint Ann parish sent a petition toQueen Victoria asking forCrown lands to cultivate, saying they could not find land for themselves.[7] The petition was sent to Eyre first, and he enclosed a letter with his own comments.
The Queen's reply was made known, and many of the poor believed that Eyre had influenced her opinion: she encouraged the poor to work harder, rather than offering any help. Gordon, who was one of two representatives from the parish ofSt. Thomas-in-the-East, began encouraging the people in his parish to find ways to make their grievances known.[8]
One of his followers was a blackBaptist deacon namedPaul Bogle. In August 1865 Bogle led a deputation of peasants from St. Thomas-in-the-East an 87 kilometer (55 mile) march to the capital,Spanish Town, hoping to meet with the governor, John Eyre to discuss issues. But the governor refused to receive them.[2]
On 7 October 1865, a black man was put on trial in the Morant Bay courthouse, charged with trespassing on a long-abandonedsugar plantation. The poor black Jamaicans of the parish were angered by this additional example of land inequality, and marched on the courthouse under the leadership of Bogle. Although the march was peaceful, the proceedings were disrupted when James Geoghegon, a black spectator, angrily denounced the charges. In the police's attempts to seize him and remove him from the courthouse, a fight broke out between the police and other spectators. While pursuing Geoghegon, two policemen were beaten with sticks and stones thrown from the crowd.[9] The trial continued and Geoghegon was convicted and imprisoned. The following Monday the court issued arrest warrants for several men for rioting, resisting arrest, and assaulting the police. Among those warrants was one issued directing the arrest of preacher Paul Bogle. The police were unable to arrest Bogle because of interference by his followers.
A few days later on 11 October, Bogle, this time with hundreds of Jamaican peasant-labourers, again marched to Morant Bay. The marchers had taken oaths, to "cleave to the black and leave the white", a sign that they were preparing for insurrection, or so Gad Heuman argues, indicating that oath taking in African tradition was a way to bring the group together and prepare for war.[2]
When the group arrived at the courthouse in Morant Bay, they were met by local officials and a small and inexperienced volunteermilitia, gathered from personnel from the plantations. The crowd began pelting the militia with rocks and sticks, and the militia opened fire on the protesters. This angered the crowd, who reacted violently, burning the court house and nearby buildings. More than 25 people were killed on both sides, before the militia retreated. For the next two days, the mass of rebellious black peasants took over the parish of St. Thomas-in-the-East.[2]
In response, GovernorJohn Eyre sent government troops, under Brigadier-GeneralAlexander Nelson,[10] to hunt down the poorly armed rebels and bring Bogle back to Morant Bay for trial. The troops met with no organized resistance, but they killed blacks indiscriminately, most of whom had not been involved in either the riot at the courthouse or the later rebellion. Amongst the rebels shot or hanged with only perfunctory trial, or no trial at all, were seven women of colour – Letitia Geoghegan, Mary Ann Francis, Judy Edwards, Ellen Dawkins, Justina Taylor, Sarah Francis and Mary Ward.[11] Heuman has described it as a reign of terror.[2] TheJamaican Maroons ofMoore Town, under the command of formerCharles Town superintendent Alexander Fyfe, committed a number of atrocities and extrajudicial murders before they captured and arrested Bogle, and delivered him to the colonial authorities.[12]
Believing that the blacks could not have planned such events themselves (as he shared the widespread white assumption of the time that they were not capable of it),[2] GovernorJohn Eyre had representativeGeorge William Gordon arrested. Themixed-race Jamaican businessman and politician was wealthy and well-known; he was openly critical of the governor and his policies. Eyre believed that Gordon had been behind the rebellion. Despite having very little to do with it, Gordon was quickly convicted and executed. Though he was arrested inKingston, where martial law had not been declared, Eyre had him transferred to Morant Bay, where he could be tried undermartial law.[13]
The trial and execution of Gordon via martial law, following the excesses of suppressing the rebellion, added to the outrage felt by many in Britain. They felt there were serious constitutional issues by Eyre's bringing Gordon under martial law. They were concerned about whetherBritish dependencies should be ruled under the government of law, or through military license.[14] With a speedy trial, Gordon was convicted quickly and hanged on 23 October, just two days after his trial had begun.[15]
According to one soldier, "we slaughtered all before us ... man or woman or child". In the end, the soldiers killed 439 black Jamaicans directly, and they arrested 354 more (including Paul Bogle) who were later executed, many without proper trials. Bogle was executed "either the same evening he was tried or the next morning".[16] On 25 October, Bogle was hanged alongside 14 others, including his brother Moses.[17]
Other punishments included flogging of more than 600 men and women (including some pregnant women), and long prison sentences. The soldiers burned thousands of homes belonging to black Jamaicans without any justifiable reason, leaving families homeless throughout the parish. This was the most severe suppression of unrest in the history of theBritish West Indies, exceeding incidents during slavery years.[2]
When news of the Jamaican government's response to the rebellion broke in Britain, with hundreds killed and hundreds more arrested and being executed, it generated fierce debate. Public figures of different political affiliations lined up to support or oppose Governor Eyre's actions. Part of the controversy related to whether observers believed that blacks had planned the uprising on their own, or whether George William Gordon and possibly whites had led them.[2]
Opponents of Eyre established theJamaica Committee in December 1865, which called for Eyre to be tried formass murder. More radical members of the Committee wanted him tried for the murder of British subjects, such asGeorge William Gordon, under the rule of law, stating that Eyre's actions taken under the aegis of martial law were illegal. The Committee leaders included the MPsJohn Bright,Charles Buxton, andPeter Taylor, as well as the scholarsCharles Darwin,Thomas Henry Huxley, andGoldwin Smith. Other supporters includedT. H. Green,Henry Fawcett, andA. V. Dicey.[18]
The Eyre Defence Committee was formed in August 1866 to support Eyre during the imminent legal actions. Its leaders included MPLord John Manners, as well asJames Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan, scientistJohn Tyndall, and the authorsThomas Carlyle andJohn Ruskin. Other supporters wereAlfred Tennyson,Charles Kingsley, andCharles Dickens.[18]
The Jamaica Committee initially sought to have Eyre charged criminally with murder, but thegrand jury did not indict him. They then supported alawsuit against Eyre,Phillips v Eyre; the plaintiff Alexander Phillips was a black gentleman who had been arrested similarly to George William Gordon. The suit was decided in Eyre's favour.[18]
The rebellion was used as a justification for more centralized control of Britain's empire.[19]
Eyre was replaced as governor byJohn Peter Grant who arrived in August 1866.[20]
Since the 1830sfree people of color, like Gordon,Edward Jordon, andRobert Osborn, had been elected to the JamaicanHouse of Assembly in increasing numbers, and that alarmed the colonial authorities. In the wake of the Morant Bay Rebellion, Eyre, with the support of theColonial Office, persuaded the Assembly to renounce its charter, thus ending two centuries of elected representation in theColony of Jamaica.[21]
White planters were appointed by the governor. However, this move deprived the black majority of a voice in the colony's government, and it was condemned by Jordon and Osborn. Jamaica became aCrown Colony, under direct rule from London.[22]
In 1969, Paul Bogle and George William Gordon were among several men who were named asJamaican National Heroes, the highest honour in the nation.[23]
Several Jamaicans in the first half of the 20th century wrote about the Rebellion:
Non-Jamaican authors have also treated the Morant Bay Rebellion.
The rebellion has been featured in music as well.Reggae artistsThird World featured the title track "1865 (96° In The Shade)" on theirsecond album in 1977; the song described the events of the Morant Bay rebellion from the point of view of Paul Bogle and George William Gordon:
You caught me on the loose, fighting to be free, now you show me a noose on a cotton tree, entertainment for you, martyrdom for me ... Some may suffer and some may burn, but I know that one day my people will learn, as sure as the sun shines, way up in the sky, today I stand here a victim – the truth is I'll never die.[24]
{{cite book}}:|website= ignored (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)Smith, Horane, "Morant Bay: Based on the Jamaican Rebellion" Createspace. 2010.ISBN 978-1548190002
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