This article is about lunar landings in general. For the Cold War "Race to the Moon", seeSpace Race. For the first crewed Moon landing, seeApollo 11. For other uses, seeMoon landing (disambiguation).
Clickable map of the locations of all successfulsoft landings on theMoon to date (top)
Dates are landing dates inCoordinated Universal Time. Except for the Apollo program, all soft landings were uncrewed.
Asterisk indicates a partial success.
Still frame from a video transmission, taken moments beforeNeil Armstrong became the first human to step onto the surface of the Moon, at 02:56 UTC on 21 July 1969. An estimated 500 million people worldwide watched this event, thelargest television audience for a live broadcast at that time.[1][2]
AMoon landing orlunar landing is the arrival of aspacecraft on the surface of theMoon, including both crewed and robotic missions. The first human-made object to touch the Moon wasLuna 2 in 1959.[3]
In 1969,Apollo 11 was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon.[4] There weresix crewed landings between 1969 and 1972, and numerous uncrewed landings. All crewed missions to the Moon were conducted by theApollo program, with the last departing the lunar surface in December 1972. AfterLuna 24 in 1976, there were nosoft landings on the Moon untilChang'e 3 in 2013. All soft landings took place on thenear side of the Moon until January 2019, whenChang'e 4 made the first landing on thefar side of the Moon.[5]
Uncrewed landings
Government landings
Stamp with a drawing of the first soft landed probeLuna 9, next to the first view of the lunar surface photographed by the probe
Six government space agencies,Interkosmos,NASA,CNSA,DOS,JAXA andESA, have reached the Moon with uncrewed missions. Three private/commercial missions,Beresheet (hard landing),Hakuto-R (hard landing), andOdysseus (soft landing) have also reached the lunar surface (see#Commercial landings). The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), the United States (NASA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO),[6] and Japan (JAXA)[7] are the only five nations to have successfully achieved soft landings.
The Soviet Union performed the first hard Moon landing—"hard" meaning the spacecraft intentionally crashes into the Moon at high speeds—with theLuna 2 spacecraft in 1959, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 withRanger 4.
Following their initial hard landings on the Moon, sixteen Soviet, U.S., Chinese and Indian spacecraft have used braking rockets (retrorockets) to makesoft landings and perform scientific operations on the lunar surface. In 1966 the Soviet Union accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during theLuna 9 andLuna 13 missions. The U.S. followed with fiveSurveyor soft landings. China's ongoing"Chang'e" program has landed 4 times since 2013, achieving robotic soil sample return and the first landing on the far side of the Moon.
On 23 August 2023, ISRO successfully landed itsChandrayaan-3 module in thelunar south pole region, making India the fourth nation to successfully complete a soft landing on the Moon.[8] Chandrayaan-3 saw a successful soft landing of itsVikram lander andPragyan rover at 6.04 pm IST (1234 GMT), marking the first uncrewed soft landing in the little-explored region.[9]
On 19 January 2024, JAXA successfully landed itsSLIM lander, making Japan the fifth nation to successfully complete a soft landing.[10]
Commercial landings
Two organizations have attempted but failed to achieve soft landings: Israeli private space agencySpaceIL with theirBeresheet spacecraft (2019), and Japanese companyispace'sHakuto-R Mission 1 (2023).
On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseus successfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9 liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This event marked the first successful landing of aprivately owned spacecraft on the Moon.[11][12]
On 2 March 2025,Firefly Aerospace'sBlue Ghost lunar lander performed the first fully successful commercial Moon landing after softly touching down on the lunar surface in a stable, upright configuration. Firefly then completed more than 14 days of surface operations and over 5 hours of operations into the lunar night - marking the longest commercial operations on the Moon to date. As a part of NASA'sCommercial Lunar Payload Services initiative, Firefly's first lunar mission delivered and operated 10 NASA instruments near Mons Latreille in Mare Crisium. The mission concluded on 16 March 2025 and Firefly announced it met 100 percent of its mission objectives.[13][14]
The view through the window of theLunar ModuleOrion shortly afterApollo 16's landing
A total of twelveastronauts have landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two pilot-astronauts flying aLunar Module on each of sixNASA missions. The missions spanned a 41-month period starting 20 July 1969, beginning withNeil Armstrong andBuzz Aldrin onApollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 withGene Cernan andHarrison Schmitt onApollo 17. Cernan was the last man to step off the lunar surface.
All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board thecommand module.
Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (100 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a "hard landing" impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a "soft landing" (the only option for humans). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard Moon landing with a ruggedizedseismometer package in 1962 all failed.[15] The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first uncrewed soft lunar landing by the U.S.
The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100% of theescape velocity of the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi/s).[16] The change in velocity (referred to as adelta-v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space by the originallaunch vehicle as part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing onSaturn's moonTitan carried out by theHuygens probe in 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by usingatmospheric entry techniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability.
The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959.[17] Crash landings[18] may occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have beenmany such Moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program theS-IVB third stage of theSaturn V rocket as well as the spent ascent stage of theLunar Module were deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as amoonquake onseismometers that had been left on the lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping theinternal structure of the Moon.
To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape thegravity well of the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb thekinetic energy of a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing. These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields andparachutes must in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree.
The political context of the 1960s helps to parse both the United States and Soviet Union's efforts to land spacecraft, and eventually humans, on the Moon.World War II had introduced many new and deadly innovations includingblitzkrieg-style surprise attacks used in theinvasion of Poland andFinland, as well as in theattack on Pearl Harbor; theV-2 rocket, aballistic missile which killed thousands in attacks on London andAntwerp; and theatom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and theSoviet Union that had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of thehydrogen bomb.
The first image of another world from space, returned by Luna 3, showed the far side of the Moon in October 1959.
On 4 October 1957, the Soviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1 as the firstartificial satellite to orbit the Earth and so initiated theSpace Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear-tipped Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes.[19] The steady beeping of theradio beacon aboardSputnik 1 as it passed overhead every 96 minutes, and the sight of the much larger and visible co-orbitingR-7 booster that had placed it into orbit, was widely viewed on both sides[20] as effective propaganda toThird World countries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Sovietpolitical system compared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid-fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R-7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth's gravity into asolar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never-before-seenfar side of the Moon. These were theLuna 1,Luna 2, andLuna 3 spacecraft.
The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency,NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so-calledmissile gap and enable a policy ofdeterrence tonuclear war with the Soviets known asmutual assured destruction or MAD. These newly developedmissiles were made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets).
Early Soviet uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965)
After thefall of the Soviet Union in 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public "Luna" mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a "Sputnik" or "Cosmos" Earth-orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all.
Artist's portrayal of a Ranger spacecraft right before impactOne of the last photos of the Moon transmitted by Ranger 8 right before impact
The U.S. was not able to reach the Moon with thePioneer andRanger programs, with fifteen consecutive U.S. uncrewed lunar missions from 1958 to 1964 failing their primary photographic missions.[21][22] However, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions.[23][24]
Three U.S. missions[15][23][25] in 1962 attempted to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to useretrorockets to survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunarreconnaissance photography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km/h).[26][27][28]
Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified ICBMs. Those flown on theThor booster modified with an Able upper stage carried aninfrared image scanning television system with aresolution of 1milliradian to study the Moon's surface, anionization chamber to measureradiation in space, a diaphragm/microphone assembly to detectmicrometeorites, amagnetometer, and temperature-variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions.[29][30][31] The first, a mission managed by theUnited States Air Force, exploded during launch;[29] all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 114,000 kilometres (71,000 mi)[30] and 1,530 kilometres (950 mi)[31] respectively, far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon.
NASA then collaborated with theUnited States Army'sBallistic Missile Agency to fly two extremely small cone-shaped probes on theJuno ICBM, carrying onlyphotocells which would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using aGeiger-Müller tube detector.[32][33] The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), gathering data that established the presence of theVan Allen radiation belts before reentering Earth's atmosphere.[32] The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on-board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach asolar orbit.[33]
The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four "paddlewheel"solar panels extending from a one-meter diameter sphericalspin-stabilized spacecraft body equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television-like system, estimate the Moon's mass and topography of thepoles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measuremagnetic fields, detectlow frequency electromagnetic waves in space and use a sophisticated integratedpropulsion system for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well.[34] None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on itsAtlas ICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage.[35][36][37]
Following the unsuccessful Atlas-Able Pioneer probes, NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratory embarked upon an uncrewed spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known asMariners;[38] lunar versions wereRangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon;[39] Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package;[40] and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide-area photographs of the Moon during their descent.[41]
The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical.[42][43] Spacecraft experiments included aLyman-alpha telescope, arubidium-vapormagnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-rangeparticle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integratingionization chamber,cosmic dust detectors, andscintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and aperigee of 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi).[42]
From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of themagnetosphere over a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high-bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one-shot fifteen-minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earthparking orbit after launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days.
The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States.[15][23][25] All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact-limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono-propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds-force (22.5 kN),[23] and a gold- and chrome-plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code-namedTonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquidfreon. A 42-kilogram (93 lb) 30-centimetre-diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere.[44]
"Everything that we do ought to really be tied-in to getting onto the Moon ahead of the Russians. ...We're ready to spend reasonable amounts of money, but we're talking about fantastic expenditures which wreck our budget and all these other domestic programs, and the only justification for it, in my opinion, to do it is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as we did by a couple of years, by God, we passed them."
This payload sphere contained six silver-cadmium batteries to power a fifty-milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 2.3 kg (5 lb) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch.
No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200-scan-line television camera to capture images during the free-fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds.[23] Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took pictures (which may be viewedhere).
Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid-fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface.[46]
On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in-flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of priorheat sterilization of the spacecraft by keeping it above theboiling point of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Ranger 3 later began orbiting the Sun, called heliocentric orbit.[47] Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in-flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon.[48]
Block III probes replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo crewed Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high-altitude photographs in the final twenty-minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. WhileRanger 6 suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequentRanger 7 mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success.
Breaking the six-year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close range, theRanger 7 mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through theUnited States Congress intact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo crewed Moon landing program. Subsequent successes withRanger 8 andRanger 9 further buoyed U.S. hopes.
Soviet uncrewed soft landings (1966–1976)
Model of Luna 16 Moon soil sample return landerModel of Soviet Lunokhod automatic Moon rover
TheLuna 9 spacecraft, launched by theSoviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February 1966.Airbags protected its 99-kilogram (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km/h; 34 mph).[49]Luna 13 duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface.[50]
In 1970 and 1973, twoLunokhod ("Moonwalker") robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (6.5 mi) (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (23 mi) (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions.
The U.S.roboticSurveyor program was part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions theradar and landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor's seven missions made successful uncrewed Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long-term exposure to the lunar environment.
Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with uncrewed spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming crewed landers with their much greater weight.
However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50-kilometre-per-hour (31 mph) ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160-kilometre-per-hour (99 mph) impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar-controlled, adjustable-thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a crewed flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so-called Space Race to land a man on the Moon.
A timeline of the space race between 1957 and 1975, with missions from the US and USSR
Advances in other areas were necessary before crewed spacecraft could follow uncrewed ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all flew directly to the surface without a lunar orbit. Suchdirect ascents use a minimum amount of fuel for uncrewed spacecraft on a one-way trip.
In contrast, crewed vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth-return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to alunar orbit rendezvous mission profile for a crewed Moon landing.
Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions featuring lunar orbit as a prerequisite to a crewed Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial uncrewed orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of crewed landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings.
An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon'smaria. Such mass concentrations ("mascons") can send a crewed mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low-altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years.
Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASALunar Prospector orbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientistEugene Shoemaker was delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor – the only human remains on the Moon.
It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so-calledfree return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a crewed circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges beyond those found in a crewed low-Earth-orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a crewed Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon.
Inhabited Earth-orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 7,500 m/s (27,000 km/h). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 11,000 m/s (40,000 km/h). Theg-loading on astronauts during the resultingdeceleration can be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force.
Achieving a crewed circumlunar loop flight prior to a crewed lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with theirZond spacecraft program. The first three Zonds were robotic planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate human spaceflight program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high-speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a crewed circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose.
Initial crewed spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the SovietVostok and U.S.Mercury programs. A two-flight extension of the Vostok program known asVoskhod effectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in tenGemini low Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second-generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove techniques for orbitalrendezvous and docking crucial to a crewed lunar landing mission profile.
After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviet Union began flying their second-generation Zond crewed spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him or her immediately to Earth. TheZond spacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operationalProton launch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet human Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third-generationSoyuz spacecraft requiring development of the advancedN-1 booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a crewed Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. human lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort.
Like Zond, Apollo flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop if aservice module malfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard theApollo 13 mission in 1970, which is the only crewed circumlunar loop mission flown to date.[when?]
Partial success – launched successfully to 300,000 km (190,000 mi) high Earth orbit, high speed reentry test guidance malfunction, intentional self-destruct to prevent landfall outside Soviet Union
Proton
23 April 1968
Circumlunar Loop
non-human biological payload
Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit; launch preparation tank explosion kills three in pad crew
Success – looped around Moon with Earth's first near-lunar life forms, two tortoises and other live biological specimens, and the capsule and payload safely to Earth despite landing off-target outside the Soviet Union in the Indian Ocean
Partial success – looped around Moon, successful reentry, but loss of cabin air pressure caused biological payload death, parachute system malfunction and severe vehicle damage upon landing
Proton
20 January 1969
Circumlunar Loop
non-human biological payload
Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit
Success – looped around Moon, returned biological payload safely to Earth and landed on-target inside Soviet Union. Only Zond mission whose reentry G-forces would have been survivable by human crew had they been aboard.
Success – looped around Moon, returned biological payload safely to Earth despite landing off-target outside Soviet Union in the Indian Ocean
Zond 5 was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of theSpace Race with its payload of tortoises, insects, plants, and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both these Zond missions flew off-nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to humans.
As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue uncrewed Zond tests until their reliability to support human flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA's continuing problems with thelunar module, and because ofCIA reports of a potential Soviet crewed circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan ofApollo 8 from an Earth-orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968.
In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site inBaikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon.Cosmonauts went on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first human trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the SovietPolitburo decided the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond/Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a crewed Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another uncrewed test when it was finally launched several weeks later.
By this time flights of the third generation U.S.Apollo spacecraft had begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. TheApollo 8 mission carried out the first human trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying theSaturn V booster for crewed use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth.Apollo 10 then performed a full dress rehearsal of a crewed Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 14.4 kilometres (47,400 ft) of the lunar surface, performing necessary low-altitude mapping of trajectory-altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module too heavy to land. With the failure of the robotic Soviet sample return Moon landing attemptLuna 15 in July 1969, the stage was set forApollo 11.
Plans for human Moon exploration began during theEisenhower administration. In a series of mid-1950s articles inCollier's magazine,Wernher von Braun had popularized the idea of a crewed expedition to establish a lunar base. A human Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management,atmospheric re-entry withoutablative overheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviets launchedSputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the US Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965.
After theearly Soviet successes, especiallyYuri Gagarin's flight, US PresidentJohn F. Kennedy looked for a project that would capture the public imagination. He asked Vice PresidentLyndon Johnson to make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit theThird World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the US, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission.
Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads; the Soviets' were much heavier, and the powerfulR-7 rocket was developed to carry them. More modest missions such as flying around the Moon, or a space lab in lunar orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun), offered too much advantage to the Soviets;landing, however, would capture the world's imagination.
Apollo landing sites
Johnson had championed the US human spaceflight program ever since Sputnik, sponsoring legislation to create NASA while he was still a senator. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best achievement to counter the Soviets' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an even chance of beating them to a crewed lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. These diversions dismayed NASA's leader,James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA's support from the scientific community.
The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn Vlaunch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record: zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle-caused mission failures in thirteen launches.
For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians both on the left (more money for social programs) and on the right (more money for the military). By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnsonbecame president in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy had planned.
Soviet leaderNikita Khrushchev said in October 1963 the USSR was "not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon," while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year did the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon-landing attempt, which ultimately failed.
At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather-monitoring satellites, eventually resulting in theApollo-Soyuz mission. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea at first: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Though Khrushchev was eventually warming up to the idea, the realization of a joint Moon landing was choked by Kennedy's assassination.[52]
Sergey Korolev, theSoviet space program's chief designer, had started promoting hisSoyuz craft and theN1 launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a human Moon landing. Khrushchev directed Korolev's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a human cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all crewed projects under his direction.
With Korolev's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, coordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for a mission that would have placedAlexei Leonov on the Moon's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a crewed landing suffered first delay and then cancellation.
A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks. This had several failures. It eventually succeeded withLuna 16 in 1970.[53] But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then.
Apollo missions
AstronautBuzz Aldrin, Lunar Module pilot of the first lunar landing mission, poses for a photograph beside the deployedUnited States flag during an Apollo 11 Extravehicular Activity (EVA) on the lunar surface.
In total, twenty-four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar-orbit-only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly-by, by means offree return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth-orbit-only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of crewed Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronautAlan Bean is the cost it imposes in government subsidies.[54]
President Richard Nixon had speechwriterWilliam Safire prepare a condolence speech for delivery in case Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon's surface and could not be rescued.[55]
In 1951, science fiction writerArthur C. Clarke forecast that a man would reach the Moon by 1978.[56]
On 16 August 2006, theAssociated Press reported that NASA ismissing the originalSlow-scan television tapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported the SSTV tapes found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.[57] The tapes were found in 2008 and sold at auction in 2019 for the 50th anniversary of the landing.[58]
Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation.[59] UsingLROC images, it has been determined that five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11.[60] Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11.[60]
Late 20th century–21st century uncrewed crash landings
Hiten (Japan)
Launched on 24 January 1990, 11:46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiterHiten was commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18:03:25.7 UT (11 April 03:03:25.7 JST).[61]
Lunar Prospector (U.S.)
Lunar Prospector was launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected.[62]
SMART-1 (ESA)
Launched 27 September 2003, 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, theESA lunar orbiterSMART-1 performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km/s (7,200 km/h; 4,500 mph). The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5:42 UTC.[63]
Chandrayaan-1 (India)
TheIndian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) performed a controlled hard landing with itsMoon Impact Probe (MIP). The MIP was ejected from theChandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface. It impacted nearShackleton crater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20:31 IST.
The Chinese lunar orbiterChang'e 1, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20:44 GMT, after a 16-month mission.Chang'e 1 was launched on 24 October 2007, 10:05 UTC.[65]
SELENE (Japan)
SELENE orKaguya after successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the craterGill at 18:25 UTC on 10 June 2009.[66]SELENE orKaguya was launched on 14 September 2007.
LCROSS (U.S.)
TheLCROSS data collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board anAtlas V rocket with aCentaur upper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11:31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kineticenergy equivalent of detonating approximately 2 tons ofTNT (8.86GJ).[67] Six minutes later at 11:37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface.[68]
GRAIL (U.S.)
TheGRAIL mission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board aDelta II rocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later.[69][70] The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012.[71] The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012.[72]
LADEE (U.S.)
LADEE was launched on 7 September 2013.[73] The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft's controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into thefar side of the Moon,[74][75] which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim ofSundman V crater.[76][77]
Manfred Memorial Moon Mission (Luxembourg)
TheManfred Memorial Moon Mission was launched on 23 October 2014. It conducted a lunar flyby and operated for 19 days which was four times longer than expected. The Manfred Memorial Moon Mission remained attached to the upper stage of its launch vehicle (CZ-3C/E). The spacecraft along with its upper stage impacted the Moon on 4 March 2022.[78][79][80]
On 14 December 2013 at 13:12 UTC,[81]Chang'e 3soft-landed arover on the Moon. This was China's first soft landing on another celestial body and world's first lunar soft landing sinceLuna 24 on 22 August 1976.[82] The mission was launched on 1 December 2013. After successful landing, the lander release theYutu rover, which moved 114 meters before being immobilized due to system malfunction. But the rover was still operational until July 2016.[83]
Chang'e 4 (China)
ChineseChang'e 4 lander on the surface of far side of the MoonYutu-2 rover deployed by Chang'e 4 lander
On 3 January 2019 at 2:26 UTC,Chang'e 4 became the first spacecraft to land on thefar side of the Moon.[84] Chang'e 4 was originally designed as the backup of Chang'e 3. It was later adjusted as a mission to the far side of the Moon after the success of Chang'e 3.[85] After making a successful landing withinVon Kármán crater, the Chang'e 4 lander deployed the 140-kilogram (310 lb)Yutu-2 rover and began human's first close exploration of the far side of the Moon. Because the Moon blocks the communications between far side and Earth, a relay satellite,Queqiao, was launched to the Earth–Moon L2Lagrangian point a few months prior to the landing to enable communications.
Yutu-2, the second lunar rover from China, was equipped with panoramic camera,lunar penetrating radar, visible and near-infrared Imaging spectrometer and advanced small analyzer for neutrals. As of July 2022, it has survived more than 1000 days on the lunar surface and is still driving with cumulative travel distance of over 1200 meters.[86][87]
Beresheet (Israel/SpaceIL)
On 22 February 2019, Israeli private space agencySpaceIL launched their spacecraftBeresheet on a Falcon 9 from Cape Canaveral, Florida with the intention of achieving a soft landing. SpaceIL lost contact with the spacecraft during final descent on 11 April 2019, and it crashed as a result of a main engine failure.
The mission was the first Israeli, and the first privately funded, lunar landing attempt.[88] Despite the failure, the mission represented the closest a private entity had come to a soft lunar landing at the time.[89]
SpaceIL was originally conceived in 2011 as a venture to pursue theGoogle Lunar X Prize. The Beresheet lunar lander's target landing destination was within Mare Serenitatis, a vast volcanic basin on the Moon's northern near side.
Chandrayaan-2 (India)
ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, launchedChandrayaan-2 on 22 July 2019.[90][91] It had three major modules: orbiter, lander and rover. Each of these modules had scientific instruments from scientific research institutes in India and the US.[92] On 7 September 2019 contact was lost with theVikram lander at an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi) after a rough braking phase.[93]Vikram was later confirmed to have crashed and been destroyed.
Hakuto-R Mission 1 (Japan)
Sora-Q mini rover carried by Hakuto-R
Hakuto-R Mission 1 was a commercial lander developed byispace_Inc.. It was launched on 11 December 2022 aboard aFalcon 9 rocket on alow-energy transfer trajectory that entered Lunar orbit 21 March 2023. An attempted landing on 25 April 2023 failed due to software misinterpretation of laser altimeter data.[94]
Chang'e 5 (China)
TheChang'e 5 returner carrying lunar sample was transported back toCAST.
On 6 December 2020 at 21:42 UTC,Chang'e 5 landed and collected the first lunar soil samples in over 40 years, and thenreturned the samples to Earth. The 8.2t stack consisting of lander, ascender, orbiter and returner was launched to lunar orbit by aLong March 5 rocket on 24 November. The lander-ascender combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing nearMons Rümker inOceanus Procellarum. The ascender was later launched back to lunar orbit, carrying samples collected by the lander, and completed the first-ever robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit.[95][96] The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which successfully landed onInner Mongolia on 16 December 2020, completing China's first extraterrestrial sample return mission.[97]
Luna 25 (Russia)
In Russia's first attempt to reach the Moon since 1976, and since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, theLuna 25 spacecraft failed during "pre-landing" maneuvers, and crashed into the lunar surface on 19 August 2023.[98]
Chandrayaan-3 (India)
Vikram lander of Chandrayaan-3 near lunar south pole
India's national space agencyISRO launchedChandrayaan-3 on 14 July 2023. Chandrayaan-3 consists of an Indigenous Lander Module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and thePragyan rover. The lander with the rover successfully landed near the lunar south pole at 18:04 IST on 23 August 2023.[99][100]
Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (Japan)
JAXA launched theSmart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) mission on 6 September 2023 at 23:42 UTC (7 September 08:42 Japan Standard Time). It landed on 19 January 2024 at 15:20 UTC, making Japan the fifth country to soft-land on the Moon.[101] Solar panel orientation issues and possible landing damage complicated the spacecraft's operation.[102][103][104] The mission also deployed two rovers which operated successfully and independently communicated with Earth.[103]
IM-1Odysseus (USA)
On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseus successfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9 liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This mission also marks the firstprivately owned spacecraft to land on the Moon and the first landing withcryogenicpropellants.[11][105] Though it landed successfully, one of the lander's legs broke upon landing and it tilted up on the other side, 18°, due to landing on a slope, but the lander survived and payloads are functioning as expected.[106] EagleCam was not ejected prior to landing. It was later ejected on 28 February but was partially a failure as it returned all types of data except post-IM-1 landing images that were the main aim of its mission.[107]
Chang'e 6 (China)
China sentChang'e 6 on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return fromApollo Basin on thefar side of the Moon.[108] This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved byChang'e 5 from the lunar near side four years earlier.[109] It also carried a Chinese rover calledJinchan to conductinfrared spectroscopy of lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.[110] The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024 at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.[111][112] The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024 at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, and later completed another robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed onInner Mongolia on 25 June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission.
The second mission of the Hakuto-R program by ispace,Hakuto-R Mission 2, carrying the RESILIENCE lunar lander and TENACIOUSmicro rover, was launched on 15 January 2025 on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle withBlue Ghost M1 lander.[115] Landing was expected inMare Frigoris around 6 June 2025.[116] The mission was scheduled to land on Thursday, 5 June, at 19:17 UTC, assuming the primary landing spot in the middle of Mare Frigoris was chosen. If ispace decided to use one of the three backup landing sites, those attempts would occur on different times.[117][118]
According to the live telemetry, it flipped over and died one minute before landing.
IM-2 Athena (USA)
Intuitive Machines's lunar landerIM-2, carrying NASA-sponsored experiments and commercial rovers (Yaoki, AstroAnt, Micro-Nova and MAPP LV1) and payloads as a part ofCommercial Lunar Payload Services program toMons Mouton, was launched on 27 February 2025 on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle withBrokkr-2 andLunar Trailblazer.[119] IM-2 landed on 6 March 2025. The spacecraft was intact after touchdown but resting on its side, thereby complicating its planned science and technology demonstration mission; this outcome is similar to what occurred with the company's IM-1 Odysseus spacecraft in 2024.[120][121] On March 13, Intuitive Machines shared that, like on the IM-1 mission, the Athena'saltimeter had failed during landing, leaving its onboard computer without an accurate altitude reading. As a result, the spacecraft struck a plateau, tipped over, and skidded across the lunar surface, rolling once or twice before settling inside the crater. The company's CEO compared it to a baseball playersliding into a base. During the slide, the spacecraft rolled once or twice, before coming to rest inside the crater. The impact also kicked upregolith that coated the solar panels in dust, further degrading their performance.[122]
Landings on moons of other Solar System bodies
21st century progress inspace exploration has broadened the phrasemoon landing to include other moons in theSolar System. TheHuygens probe of theCassini–Huygens mission toSaturn performed a successful moon landing onTitan in 2005. The Soviet probePhobos 2 came within 190 km (120 mi) of performing a landing onMars' moonPhobos in 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission calledFobos-Grunt ("grunt" means "soil" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future landing onJupiter's moonEuropa to drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface.[123]
On 11 December 2017, US PresidentDonald Trump signed Space PolicyDirective 1, which directed NASA to return to the Moon with a crewed mission, for long-term exploration and use and missions to other planets.[129] On 26 March 2019,Vice President Mike Pence formally announced that the mission will include the first female lunar astronaut.[130] TheArtemis program had intended to land a crewed mission on the Moon in 2024, and to begin sustained operations by 2028, supported by a plannedLunar Gateway.[131] The NASA lunar landing mission has since been postponed to launch no earlier than September 2026.[132]
^"India's next Moon shot will be bigger, in pact with Japan".The Times of India. 7 July 2019. Retrieved21 June 2019.For our next mission – Chandrayaan-3 – which will be accomplished in collaboration with JAXA (Japanese Space Agency), we will invite other countries too to participate with their payloads.
James Gleick, "Moon Fever" [review ofOliver Morton,The Moon: A History of the Future;Apollo's Muse: The Moon in the Age of Photography, an exhibition at theMetropolitan Museum of Art,New York City, 3 July – 22 September 2019;Douglas Brinkley,American Moonshot: John F. Kennedy and the Great Space Race; Brandon R. Brown,The Apollo Chronicles: Engineering America's First Moon Missions;Roger D. Launius,Reaching for the Moon: A Short History of the Space Race;Apollo 11, a documentary film directed byTodd Douglas Miller; andMichael Collins,Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys (50th Anniversary Edition)]
Apollo in Real Time: an independently organized collection of different Apollo missions media, creating a comprehensive and interactive documentation of Apollo missions.
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