Mononoke (物の怪) are vengeful spirits (onryō), dead spirits (shiryō), live spirits (ikiryō), or spirits in Japanese classical literature and folk religion that were said to do things like possess individuals and make them suffer, cause disease, or even cause death.[1][2] It is also a word sometimes used to refer toyōkai orhenge ("changed beings").[3][4]
Mononoke can be often seen in literature of theHeian period.[5] As a famous example, in the 9th volume of theGenji Monogatari, "Aoi" is the ikiryō ofLady Rokujo, who possessedAoi no Ue.[2][6] Other than that, there are also statements aboutmononoke in publications likeŌkagami andMasukagami.[5]
In those times, when medical knowledge had not been fully developed, people like monks andshugensha would perform incantations and prayers against diseases caused bymononoke, and by temporarily moving themononoke into a different person called the "yorimashi" (usually servants, apprentices, etc.) they would perform exorcisms on themononoke to heal the illness. Statements on this practice can be found in detail in works likeThe Pillow Book andThe Diary of Lady Murasaki.[5][6] Also, according to theShoku Nihon Kōki, it told of once when a monk chanted a sutra to 60 people within the imperial residence.[7]
The first appearance of the term in Japanese literature is seen to be in theNihon Kōki, and according to a quotation of this book from theNihon Kiryaku of the same time period, in the article of Uruu 12th month of the yearTenchō 7 (830), there is the statement: "Five monks were invited to recite the Diamond Sutra. With some difficulty, theJingi-kan relieved it. It was the work of a物恠," and there are also statements aboutmononoke in the articles in the 8th month Jinshin of the same year, and of year 10 in the 5th month.[6] In the old language of those times, the word "mono" was used to refer tooni, spirits, orAra-mitama among other things,[1][8] or things that were not felt to be clearly real,[9] and in theTaihō Code, epidemic diseases were written about as "toki no ke" (時気), using the word "ke" to refer to "diseases", and so it is seen that a "mono no ke" (a "ke" of a "mono") was used to refer to diseases caused by these "mono".[1][8] "The Pillow Book" as well, there are names for diseases such as "mune no ke" ("ke" of the chest), "ashi no ke" ("ke" of the feet), and "mono no ke" ("ke" of "mono").[1]
As groundwork for howmononoke were thought of as, in Japan from the beginning of the Heian Period, various societal malaises and illnesses were thought to be due to curses ("tatari") of vengeful spirits (onryō). Starting with how the succession of emperors dying to diseases and the spread of epidemics in theEnryaku years was said to be the curse ofPrince Sawara, there is a tale in theNihonkoku Genpō Zen'aku Ryōiki in which the grudge ofPrince Nagaya is said to have led many people to their deaths. In theShoku Nihongi, there is a statement aboutFujiwara no Hirotsugu's vengeful spirit (onryō). However, this kind of thought still wasn't very influential at that time, and evenEmperor Saga stated in a caution, "in this society, some would attribute any and allmononoke to a spirit's curse. These are very baseless assertions,"[10] thus strongly denying the relation betweenmononoke and vengeful spirits.[6]
Afterwards, in theShoku Nihon Kōki, the author,Harusumi no Yoshitada, reflecting knowledge ofonmyōdō, strongly adopted the concept ofmononoke.[6] In theJōwa years, the aristocratic society received strong influence from onmyōdō, and the spread of onmyōdō planted in many people the general concept of vengeful spirits. Just at that time, afterSugawara no Michizane died inEngi 3 (903), the deaths one after another that followed of members of the imperial and noble families, as well as the spread of epidemic diseases, were feared as the work of a curse of Michizane, and thus the belief thatmononoke were caused by vengeful spirits' curses grew even stronger.[6]
Afterwards, in the era of theFujiwara sekke, as opposed to how noble families at that time boasted of glory, they had delicate personalities, and so due to fear of the grudges and revenges of the era's defeated ones, and due to misgivings about the future, fear ofmononoke became more aroused.[6] The locked-in lifestyle of the imperial society at that time also fostered in the nobles' minds fear ofmononoke.[5] In this way,mononoke themselves were thought to be vengeful spirits, and eventually in addition to epidemic diseases, individual deaths, illnesses, and pain were all seen to be due tomononoke, and the illnesses itself also became calledmononoke.[6] Furthermore, due to the concept of the fear of "mono", the things that were said to be the origin of the illnesses, the ikiryō and shiryō themselves, were also thought to have been calledmononoke.[1]