TheMongol campaign against the Nizaris of the Alamut period (theNizari Ismaili state) began in 1253 after theMongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire and a series of Nizari–Mongol conflicts. The campaign was ordered by the Great KhanMöngke and was led by his brother,Hülegü. The campaign against the Nizaris and later theAbbasid Caliphate was intended to establish a new khanate in the region—theIlkhanate.

Hülegü's campaign began with attacks on strongholds in Quhistan and Qumis amidst intensified internal dissensions among Nizari leaders under ImamMuhammad III of Alamut whose policy was fighting against the Mongols. His successor,Rukn al-Din Khurshah, began a long series of negotiations in face of the implacable Mongol advance. In 1256, the Imam capitulated while besieged inMaymun-Diz and ordered his followers to do likewise according to his agreement with Hülegü. Despite being difficult to capture,Alamut ceased hostilities too and was dismantled. The Nizari state was thus disestablished, although several individual forts, notablyLambsar,Gerdkuh, and those in Syria continued to resist. Möngke Khan later ordered a general massacre of all Nizaris, including Khurshah and his family.

Many of the surviving Nizaris scattered throughout Western, Central, and South Asia. Little is known about them afterward, but their communities maintain some sort of independence in their heartland ofDaylam and their Imamate reappeared later inAnjudan.

The main primary source is theTarikh-i Jahangushay written by the historianAta-Malik Juvayni, who was present in the campaign as an official under Hulegu. Juvayni has dedicated the concluding one-third of his history to this campaign, depicting it as the pinnacle of the Mongol conquest in the Muslim lands. His account contains inconsistencies and exaggerations and has been "corrected" based on other sources. Other sources include theJami' al-Tawarikh written byRashid al-Din Hamadani and theTarikh-i Tabaristan byIbn Isfandiyar.^[1]

TheNizaris were a branch ofIsmailis, itself a branch ofShia Muslims. By establishing strategic and self-sufficient mountain strongholds, they had establisheda state of their own within the territories of theSeljuq and laterKhwarezmian empires of Persia.^[2]

In 1192 or 1193,Rashid al-Din Sinan had been succeeded by the Persianda'iNasr al-Ajami, who restored Alamut suzerainty over the Nizaris in Syria.^[3] After the Mongol invasion of Persia, many Sunni and Shia Muslims (including the prominent scholaral-Tusi) had taken refuge with the Nizaris ofQuhistan. The governor (muhtasham) of Quhistan wasNasir al-Din Abu al-Fath Abd al-Rahim ibn Abi Mansur.^[4]

In 1221, the Nizari ImamJalal al-Din Hasan sent emissaries toGenghis Khan inBalkh. The Imam died in the same year and was succeeded by his 9-years-old son,Ala al-Din Muhammad.^[5]

After the fall of theKhwarezmian dynasty as a result of theMongol invasion, direct confrontations began between the Nizaris under Imam Ala al-Din Muhammad and the Mongols underÖgedei Khan. The latter had just begun to conquer the rest of Persia. Soon the Nizaris lostDamghan inQumis to the Mongols; the Nizaris had recently taken control of the city after the fall of the Khwarezmshahs.^[3]

The Nizari Imam sought anti-Mongol alliances as far asChina, France, and England:^[6] in 1238, he and theAbbasid caliphAl-Mustansir sent a joint diplomatic mission to the European kingsLouis IX of France andEdward I of England to forge a Muslim–Christian alliance against the Mongols, but this was unsuccessful. The European kings laterjoined the Mongols against the Muslims.^[3][4]

In 1246, the Nizari Imam, together with the new Abbasid caliphAl-Musta'sim and many Muslim rulers, sent a diplomatic mission under the Nizarimuhtashams (governors) ofQuhistan, Shihab al-Din and Shams al-Din, to Mongolia on the occasion of the enthronement of the new Mongol Great Khan,Güyük Khan. But the latter dismissed them, and soon dispatched reinforcements underEljigidei to Persia, instructing him to dedicate one-fifth of the forces there to reduce rebellious territories, beginning with the Nizari state. Güyük himself had intended to participate but died shortly afterward.^[3] A Mongolnoyan (commander),Chagatai the Elder, was reportedly assassinated by the Nizaris around this time.^[7]

Güyük's successor,Möngke Khan, began to implement the former's schemes. Möngke's decision followed anti-Nizari urges by Sunnis in the Mongol court, new anti-Nizari complaints (such as that of Shams al-Din,qadi ofQazvin), and warnings from the local Mongol commanders in Persia. In 1252, Möngke entrusted the mission of conquering the rest of Western Asia to his brotherHülegü, with the highest priority being the conquest of the Nizari state and the Abbasid Caliphate. Elaborate preparations were made, and Hülegü did not set out until 1253, and actually arrived in Persia more than two years later.^[3] In 1253,William of Rubruck, a Flemish priest sent on a mission toKarakorum in Mongolia, was struck by the security precautions there, reportedly in response to the more than forty Assassins who had been sent there to assassinate Möngke;^[8][3] it is possible that the assassination attempt was merely rumored.^[9][10][11]

In March 1253,Hülegü's advance guard under the command ofKitbuqa crossed the Oxus (Amu Darya) with 12,000 men (onetümen plus twomingghans underKöke Ilgei).^[15] In April 1253, they captured several Nizari fortresses inQuhistan and killed their inhabitants, and in May they attacked the district ofQumis and laid siege toGerdkuh, the main Nizari stronghold there.^[16][17] His army consisted of 5,000 (probably Mongol) cavalrymen and 5,000 (probablyTajik) infantrymen. Kitbuqa left an army underamir Büri to besiege Gerdkuh, and himself attacked the nearby Mihrin (Mehrnegar) castle and Shah (inQasran?). In August 1253, he sent raiding parties to the Tarem and Rudbar districts with little results. Afterward they attacked and slaughtered the inhabitants of Mansuriah and Alabeshin (Alah beshin).^[16][18][19]

In October 1253, Hülegü left hisorda in Mongolia and began his march with atümen at a leisurely pace and increased his number in his way.^[15][20][16] He was accompanied by two of his ten sons,Abaqa andYoshmut,^[19] his brother Subedei, who died en route,^[21] his wives Öljei and Yisut, and his stepmotherDoquz.^[19][22]

In July 1253, Kitbuqa who had been in Quhistan, pillaged, slaughtered, and seized probably temporarilyTun (Ferdows) andTurshiz. A few months later,Mehrin and several other castles in Qumis fell as well.^[18] In December 1253, Girdkuh's garrison audaciously sallied at night and killed a hundred Mongols, including Büri.^[18][16] Gerdkuh was on the verge of falling due to an outbreak ofcholera, but unlikeLambsar, it survived the epidemic and was saved by the arrival of reinforcements fromAlamut sent by the Imam Ala al-Din Muhammad in the summer of 1254. The impregnable fort resisted for many years(see below).^[16][18][23]

In September 1255, Hülegü arrived nearSamarqand.^[20] He then made Kish (Shahrisabz) his temporary headquarters, and sent messengers to the local Mongol and non-Mongol rulers in Persia, announcing his presence as the Great Khan's viceroy and asking for assistance against the Nizaris, with the punishment of refusal being their utter destruction. In Autumn 1255,Arghun Aqa joined him.^[24] All of the rulers of Rum (Anatolia),Fars,Iraq,Azerbaijan,Arran,Shirvan,Georgia, and supposedly alsoArmenia, acknowledged their service with many gifts.^[17]

The inexorable Mongol advances in Quhistan caused consternation among the Nizari leadership. The relationship had already deteriorated between ImamAla al-Din Muhammad, who was reportedly afflicted bymelancholia, and his advisors and Nizari leaders, as well as with his sonRukn al-Din Khurshah, the designated future Imam. According to Persian historians, the Nizari elites had planned a "coup" against Muhammad in order to replace him with Khurshah who would subsequently enter into immediate negotiations with the Mongols, but Khurshah fell ill before implementing this plan.^[18] Nevertheless, on December 1 or 2, 1255, Muhammad died under suspicious circumstances and was succeeded by Khurshah^[18][16] who was in his late twenties.^[1]

To reach Iran, Hülegü had entered via the Chaghatai khaganate, crossing the Oxus (Amu Darya) in January 1256 and entered Quhistan in April 1256. Hülegü chose Tun, which had not been reduced effectively by Kitbuqa, as his first target. An obscure incident occurred while Hülegü was passing through theZawa andKhwaf districts which deterred him from supervising the campaign. He instructed Kitbuqa and Köke Ilgei in May 1256 to attack Tun again, which was sacked after a week-long siege, and almost all its inhabitants were massacred. The Mongol commanders then regrouped with Hülegü and attackedTus.^[20][16]

As soon as he had been in power, Khurshah announced the Nizari leadership's willingness to submit to the Mongol rule to the nearest Mongol commander,noyan Yasur inQazvin. Yasur replied that the Imam personally should visit Hülegü's camp. Skrimishes are recorded between Yasur and the Nizaris of Rudbar: on June 12, he was defeated in a battle on MountSiyalan near Alamut, where the Nizari forces had been mustered, but managed to harass the Nizaris of the region.^[25][26]

As Hülegü reachedBistam, his army had enlarged into fivetümens, and new commanders were added. Many of them were the relatives ofBatu Khan. From theulus ofJochi representing the Golden Horde came Quli (son ofOrda), Balagha, and Tutar. TheChagatai Khanate forces were underTegüder. A contingent ofOirat tribesmen also joined underBuqa Temür. No member ofÖgedei's family is mentioned.^[21] Hülegü had with him a thousand squads ofsiege engineers (probably northChinese,Khitan and Muslim) skilled in the use ofmangonels andnaphtha.^[27][16]

The Mongols campaigned against the Nizari heartland ofAlamut and Rudbar from three directions. The right wing, under Buqa Temür and Köke Ilgei, marched viaTabaristan. The left wing, under Tegüder and Kitbuqa, marched viaKhuwar andSemnan. The center was under Hulegu himself. Meanwhile, Hülegü sent another warning to Khurshah. Khurshah was at theMaymun-Diz fortress and was apparently playing for time; by resisting longer, the arrival of winter could have stopped the Mongol campaigning. He sent his vizier Kayqubad; they met the Mongols inFiruzkuh and offered the surrender of all strongholds except Alamut and Lambsar, and again asked for a year's delay for Khurshah to visit Hülegü in person. Meanwhile, Khurshah ordered Gerdkuh and the fortresses of Quhistan to surrender, which their chiefs did, but the garrison of Gerdkuh continued to resist. The Mongols continued to advance and reachedLar,Damavand, andShahdiz. Khurshah sent his 7- or 8-years-old son as a show of good faith, but he was sent back due to his young age. Khurshah then sent his second brother Shahanshah (Shahin Shah), who met the Mongols atRey. But Hülegü demanded the dismantling of the Nizari fortifications to show his goodwill.^{[16][28][29][1]}

Numerous negotiations between the Nizari Imam and Hülegü were futile. Apparently, the Nizari Imam sought to at least keep the main Nizari strongholds, while the Mongols were adamant that the Nizaris must fully submit.^[4]

On 8 November 1256, Hülegü set up camp on a hilltop facingMaymun-Diz and encircled the fortress with his forces by marching over the Alamut mountains via theTaleqan valley and appearing at the foot of Maymun-Diz.^[16]

Maymun-Diz could have been attacked by mangonels; that was not the case withAlamut,Nevisar Shah,Lambsar andGerdkuh, all of which were on top of high peaks. Nevertheless, the strength of the fortification impressed the Mongols, who surveyed it from various angles to find a weak point. Since the winter was approaching, Hülegü was advised by the majority of his lieutenants to postpone the siege, but he decided to proceed. Preliminary bombardments were performed for three days by mangonels from a nearby hilltop with casualties on both sides. A direct Mongol assault on the fourth day was repulsed. The Mongols then used heavier siege engines hurling javelins dipped in burning pitch and set up additional mangonels all around the fortifications.^[16]

Later that month, Kuhrshah sent a message offering his surrender on the condition of the immunity of him and his family. Hülegü's royal decree was sent byAta-Malik Juvayni, who took it personally to Khurshah, asking for his signature, but Khurshah was hesitant. After several days, Hülegü began another bombardment and on 19 November, Khurshah and his entourage descended from the fortress and surrendered. The evacuation of the fortress continued until the next day. A small part of the garrison refused to surrender and fought in alast stand in a high domed building in the fortress; they were defeated and slaughtered after three days.^[16][28][30]

The Nizari leadership's decision to surrender was apparently influenced by outside scholars such asal-Tusi.^[31]

An inexplicable aspect of the events for historians is why Alamut made no effort to assist their besieged comrades in Maymun-Diz.^[32]

Khurshah instructed all Nizari castles of the Rusbar valley to capitulate, evacuate, and dismantle their forts. All castles (around forty) subsequently capitulated, exceptAlamut (undersipahsalarMuqaddam al-Din Muhammad Mubariz) andLambsar, possibly because their commanders thought the Imam had issued orders under duress and was practicing a sort oftaqiyya. Despite the small size of the fortress and its garrison, Alamut was stone-built (unlike Maymun-Diz), well-provisioned, and featured a reliable water supply. However, the Nizari faith demands the faithful pay absolute obedience to theImam in all circumstances. Hülegü surrounded Alamut with his army, and Khurshah unsuccessfully attempted to persuade its commander to surrender. Hülegü left a large force under Balaghai to besiege Alamut, and himself together with Khurshah set out to besiege the nearby Lambsar. Muqaddam al-Din eventually capitulated after a few days in December 1256.^[16][30]

Juvayni describes the difficulty by which the Mongols dismantled the plastered walls andlead-covered ramparts of Alamut. The Mongols had to set fire to the buildings and then destroy them piece by piece. He also notes the extensive chambers, galleries, and deep tanks, replete with wine, vinegar, honey, and other goods. During the pillage, one man was almost drowned in a honey store.^[16]

After examining Alamut's famous library, Juvayni saved "copies of the Qur'an and other choice books" as well as "astronomical instruments such askursis (part of anastrolabe),armillary spheres, complete and partial astrolabes, and others", and burned the other books "which related to their heresy and error". He also pickedHasan Sabbah's biography,Sargudhasht-i Bābā Sayyidinā (Persian:سرگذشت بابا سیدنا), which interested him, but he claims he burnt it after reading it. Juvayni has extensively cited its contents in hisTarikh-i Jahangushay.^[16]

Juvayni noted the impregnability and self-sufficiency of Alamut and the other Nizari fortresses. Rashid al-Din similarly writes of the good fortune of Mongols in their war against the Nizaris.^[31]

By 1256, Hülegü almost eliminated the Persian Nizaris as an independent military force.^[33] Khurshah was then taken toQazvin where he sent messages to the Syrian Nizari stronghold instructing them to surrender, but they did not act, believing that the Imam was acting under duress.^[16] As his position became intolerable, Khurshah asked Hülegü to be allowed to go meetMöngke in Mongolia, promising that he would persuade the remaining Ismaili fortresses to surrender. Möngke rebuked him after visiting him inKarakoram, Mongolia, due to his failure to hand over Lambsar and Gerdkuh, and ordered his return to his homeland. In the way, he and his small retinue were executed by their Mongol escort. Möngke meanwhile issued a general massacre of all Nizari Ismailis, including all of Khurshah's family as well as the garrisons.^[16][4] Khurshah's relatives who were kept at Qazvin were killed by Qaraqai Bitikchi, while Ötegü-China summoned the Nizaris of Quhistan to gatherings and slaughtered about 12,000 people. Möngke's order reflects an earlier order byChingiz Khan.^[31] Around 100,000 people are estimated to have been killed.^[16]

Hülegü then moved with the bulk of his army to Azerbaijan, officially established his own khanate (theIlkhanate), and thensacked Baghdad in 1258.^[33]

As the centralized government of the Nizaris was disestablished, the Nizaris either were killed or had abandoned their traditional strongholds. Many of them migrated toAfghanistan,Badakhshan, andSindh. Little is known about the history of the Ismailis in this stage, until two centuries later, when they again began to grow as scattered communities under regionalda'is in Iran, Afghanistan, Badakhshan, Syria, and India.^[4] The Nizaris of Syria were tolerated by theBahri Mamluks and held a few castles under Mamluk suzerainty. The Mamluks may have employed Nizarifedais against their own enemies, notably the attempted assassination of theCrusader PrinceEdward of England in 1271.^[34]

Resistance by the Nizaris in Persia was still ongoing in some forts, notablyLambsar,Gerdkuh, and several forts in Quhistan.^[35][33] Lambsar fell in January 1257 after a cholera outbreak.^[36] Gerdkuh resisted much longer. The Mongols had built permanent structures and houses around this fortress, the ruins of which, together with two types of stones used for the Nizari and Mongol mangonels, are still extant today.^[31] On 15 December 1270, during the reign of Abaqa, the garrison of Gerdkuh surrendered from want of clothing. It was thirteen years after the fall of Alamut, and seventeen years after its first siege by Kitbuqa; the Mongols killed the surviving garrison but did not destroy the fortress.^[31] In the same year, an unsuccessful assassination attempt onJuvayni is attributed to the Nizaris, who had earlier spoken of their total annihilation.^[37] By 1273, all the Syrian Nizari castles were also captured byBaibars.^[38]

In 1275, a Nizari force under a son of Khurshah (titled Naw Dawlat or Abu Dawlat)^[1] and a descendant of theKhwarezmian dynasty recaptured the Alamut Castle, but the Mongols reclaimed it a year later.^[39][37] Just like other groups in the nearby regions, the Nizaris too were still able to retain a (semi)-independent state in their heartland ofDaylam. This continued at least untilÖljaitü's campaign againstGilan in 1307, which was successful but was apyrrhic victory with heavy casualties on both sides. Nevertheless, the possible Ilkhanate authority over the region must have been eradicated in 1335 after the death of the last ruler of the Ilkhanate. By 1368, Daylam was governed by Kiya Sayf al-Din, a member of theKushaijis, an Ismaili dynasty. He was attacked and killed bySayyid Ali Kiya, the founder of theKarkiya dynasty.^[40][1] The Nizaris also re-established their Imamate at the village ofAnjudan, where they are recorded to be active in the 14–15th century.

• Dashdondog, Bayarsaikhan (2020). "Mongol Diplomacy of the Alamut Period".Eurasian Studies.17 (2):310–326.doi:10.1163/24685623-12340078.S2CID 219012875.

• Invasions by the Mongol Empire
• Invasions of Iran
• Nizari Ismaili state
• Wars involving the Nizari Ismaili state
• Sieges involving Iran
• 13th-century Islam
• Conflicts in 1253
• Conflicts in 1256
• 1256 in Asia
• 1256 disestablishments in Asia
• Conflicts in 1270
• Conflicts in 1275
• Conflicts in 1276
• 13th century in Iran
• 1250s in the Mongol Empire
• 1251 in Asia
• 1253 in Asia
• Tabaristan
• Medieval Khorasan
• History of South Khorasan province
• History of Razavi Khorasan province
• History of Semnan province
• History of Qazvin province
• History of Tehran province
• Massacres in Iran
• Prisoner of war massacres
• Politicides

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