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Monarchism is the advocacy of the system ofmonarchy or monarchical rule.[1] Amonarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is aroyalist. Conversely, the opposition to monarchical rule is referred to asrepublicanism.[2][3][4]
Depending on the country, a royalist may advocate for the rule of the person who sits on the throne, aregent, apretender, or someone who would otherwise occupy the throne but has been deposed.
Monarchical rule is among the oldest political institutions.[5] The similar form of societal hierarchy known aschiefdom ortribal kingship is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such asMesopotamia,Ancient Egypt and theIndus Valley civilization.[6] In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies.[7]
Monarchs have generally ceded power in the modern era, having substantially diminished sinceWorld War I andWorld War II. This process can be traced back to the 18th century, whenVoltaire and others encouraged "enlightened absolutism", which was embraced by theHoly Roman Emperor Joseph II and byCatherine II of Russia.[citation needed]
In the 17th and 18th centuries theEnlightenment began.[8] This resulted in new anti-monarchist ideas[9] which resulted in several revolutions such as the 18th centuryAmerican Revolution and theFrench Revolution which were both additional steps in the weakening of power of European monarchies. Each in its different way exemplified the concept ofpopular sovereignty upheld byJean-Jacques Rousseau. 1848 ushered ina wave of revolutions against the continental European monarchies.World War I and its aftermath saw the end of three major European monarchies: the RussianRomanov dynasty, the GermanHohenzollern dynasty, including all other German monarchies, and the Austro-HungarianHabsburg dynasty.[citation needed]
With the arrival ofcommunism inEastern Europe by the end of 1947, the remaining Eastern European monarchies, namely theKingdom of Romania, theKingdom of Hungary, theKingdom of Albania, theKingdom of Bulgaria, and theKingdom of Yugoslavia, were allabolished and replaced bysocialist republics.
In 1966, theCentral African Republic was overthrown at the hands ofJean-Bédel Bokassa during theSaint-Sylvestre coup d'état. He established theCentral African Empire in 1976 and ruled as Emperor Bokassa I until 1979, when he was subsequently deposed duringOperation Caban and Central Africa returned to republican rule.[citation needed]
In 1974, one of the world's oldest monarchies was abolished inEthiopia with the fall of EmperorHaile Selassie.[citation needed]
For most of its history, China was organized into variousdynastic states under the rule ofhereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule byYu the Greatc. 2070 BC, and ending with theabdication of theXuantong Emperor in AD 1912,Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.[a][b] Besides those established by the dominantHan ethnic group or its spiritualHuaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.[15]
In India, monarchies recorded history of thousands of years before the country was declared a republic in 1950. KingGeorge VI had previously been the lastEmperor of India until August 1947, when theBritish Raj dissolved.Karan Singh served as the last prince regent ofJammu and Kashmir until November 1952.[citation needed]
The emperor of Japan orTennō (天皇,pronounced[tennoꜜː]), literally "ruler from heaven" or "heavenly sovereign",[16][c] is thehereditary monarch andhead of state ofJapan. TheImperial Household Law governs the line ofimperial succession. The emperor is personallyimmune from prosecution[18] and is also recognized as the head of theShinto religion, which holds the emperor to be the direct descendant of the sun goddessAmaterasu. According to tradition, the office of emperor was created in the 7th century BC, but modern scholars believe that the first emperors did not appear until the 5th or 6th centuriesAD.[19][20] During theKamakura period from 1185 to 1333, theshōguns were thede facto rulers of Japan, with the emperor and the imperial court acting asfigureheads.[21] In 1867, shogunTokugawa Yoshinobu stepped down,restoringEmperor Meiji to power.[22] TheMeiji Constitution was adopted In 1889, after which the emperor became an active ruler with considerable political power that was shared with theImperial Diet.[23] AfterWorld War II, the1947 Constitution of Japan was enacted, defining the emperor as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people.[24] The emperor has exercised a purely ceremonial role ever since.[25]
The last separate monarchy to take root in Europe,Albania began its recognised modern existence as aprincipality (1914) and becamea kingdom after arepublican interlude in 1925–1928. Since 1945 the country has operated as an independent republic. TheAlbanian Democratic Monarchist Movement Party (founded in 2004) and theLegality Movement Party (founded in 1924) advocate restoration of theHouse of Zogu as monarchs—the concept has gained little electoral support.[citation needed]
Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, theRepublic of German-Austria was proclaimed. The Constitutional Assembly of German Austria passed theHabsburg Law, which permanently exiled the Habsburg family from Austria. Despite this, significant support for the Habsburg family persisted in Austria. Following theAnschluss of 1938, theNazi government suppressed monarchist activities. By the time Nazi rule ended in Austria, support for monarchism had largely evaporated.[26]
In Hungary, the rise of theHungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 provoked an increase in support for monarchism; however, efforts by Hungarian monarchists failed to bring back a royal head of state, and the monarchists settled for aregent, AdmiralMiklós Horthy, to represent the monarchy until the throne could be re-occupied. Horthy ruled as regent from 1920 to 1944. During his regency, attempts were made byKarl von Habsburg (r. 1916–1918) to return to the Hungarian throne, which ultimately failed. Following Karl's death in 1922, his claim to the Kingdom of Hungary was inherited byOtto von Habsburg (1912–2011), although no further attempts were made to take the Hungarian throne.[citation needed]
France was ruled bymonarchs from the establishment of theKingdom of West Francia in 843 until the end of theSecond French Empire in 1870, with several interruptions.
Classical Frenchhistoriography usually regardsClovis I,King of the Franks (r. 507–511), as the first king of France. However, historians today consider that such a kingdom did not begin until the establishment ofWest Francia, during the dissolution of theCarolingian Empire in the 800s.[27][28]
In 1920s Germany, a number of monarchists gathered around theGerman National People's Party (founded in 1918), which demanded the return of theHohenzollern monarchy and an end to theWeimar Republic; the party retained a large base of support until the rise ofNazism in the 1930s, asAdolf Hitler staunchly opposed monarchism.[29]
The aftermath ofWorld War II saw the return of monarchist/republican rivalry inItaly, where areferendum was held on whether the state should remain a monarchy or become a republic. The republican side won the vote by a narrow margin, and the modern Republic of Italy was created.[30]
There have been 16 monarchs of thePrincipality of Liechtenstein since 1608. The current Prince of Liechtenstein,Hans-Adam II, has reigned since 1989. In 2003, during areferendum, 64.3% of the population voted to increase the power of the prince.[citation needed]
The position ofKing of Norway has existed continuously since theunification of Norway in 872. Following the dissolution ofunion with Sweden and the abdication of KingOscar II of Sweden as King of Norway, the1905 Norwegian monarchy referendum saw 78.94% of Norway's voters approving the government's proposition to invite Prince Carl of Denmark to become their new king. Following the vote, the prince then accepted the offer, becoming KingHaakon VII.[citation needed]
In 2022, the Norwegian parliament held a vote on abolishing the monarchy and replacing it with a republic. The proposal failed, with a 134–35 result in favor of retaining the monarchy. The idea was highly controversial in Norway, as the vote was spearheaded by the sittingMinister of Culture and Equality, who had sworn an oath of loyalty to KingHarald V of Norway the previous year. Additionally, when polls were conducted, it was found that 84% of the Norwegian public supported the monarchy, with only 16% unsure or against the monarchy.[citation needed]
Monarchy in theRussian Empire collapsed in March 1917, following theabdication of TsarNicholas II. Parts of theWhite movement, and in particularémigrés and theirSupreme Monarchical Council [ru] (founded in 1921 and now based in Canada) continued to advocate for monarchy as "the sole path to the rebirth of Russia". In the modern era, a minority of Russians, includingVladimir Zhirinovsky (1946–2022), have openly advocated for arestoration of the Russian monarchy.Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna is widely considered the valid heir to the throne, in the event that a restoration occurs.Other pretenders and their supporters dispute her claim.
In 1868, QueenIsabella II of Spain was deposed during theSpanish Glorious Revolution. TheDuke of Aosta, an Italian prince, was invited to rule and replace Isabella. He did so for a three-year period, reigning as Amadeo I before abdicating in 1873, resulting in the establishment of theFirst Spanish Republic. The republic lasted less than two years, and was overthrown during a coup by GeneralArsenio Martínez Campos. Campos restored theBourbon monarchy under Isabella II's more popular son,Alfonso XII.
After the1931 Spanish local elections, KingAlfonso XIII voluntarily left Spain and republicans proclaimed aSecond Spanish Republic.[31]After theassassination of opposition leaderJosé Calvo Sotelo in 1936, right-wing forces banded together to overthrow the Republic. During theSpanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939, GeneralFrancisco Franco established the basis for theSpanish State (1939–1975). In 1938, the autocratic government of Franco claimed to have reconstituted the Spanish monarchyin absentia (and in this case ultimately yielded to a restoration, in the person of KingJuan Carlos).
In 1975,Juan Carlos I became King of Spain and began theSpanish transition to democracy. He abdicated in 2014, and was succeeded by his sonFelipe VI.
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In England, royalty ceded power to other groups in a gradual process. In 1215, a group of nobles forcedKing John to signMagna Carta, which guaranteed the English barons certain liberties and established that the king's powers were not absolute. KingCharles I was executed in 1649, and theCommonwealth of England was established as a republic. Highly unpopular, the republic was ended in 1660, and the monarchy was restored under KingCharles II. In 1687–88, theGlorious Revolution and the overthrow of KingJames II established the principles ofconstitutional monarchy, which would later be worked out byLocke and other thinkers. However,absolute monarchy, justified byHobbes inLeviathan (1651), remained a prominent principle elsewhere.
Following the Glorious Revolution,William III andMary II were established as constitutional monarchs, with less power than their predecessor James II. Since then, royal power has become more ceremonial, with powers such asrefusal to assent last exercised in 1708 byQueen Anne. Once part of the United Kingdom (1801–1922), southern Ireland rejected monarchy and became theRepublic of Ireland in 1949. Support for a ceremonial monarchy remains high in Britain: QueenElizabeth II (r. 1952–2022), possessed wide support from the U.K.'s population.
The Vatican City State is considered to be Europe's last absolute monarchy. The microstate is headed by thePope, who doubles as its monarch according to the Vatican constitution. The nation was formed underPope Pius XI in 1929, following the signing of theLateran Treaty. It was the successor state to thePapal States, which collapsed underPope Pius IX in 1870.Pope Francis (in office from 2013) serves as the nation's absolute monarch.
Canada possesses one of the world's oldest continuous monarchies, having been established in the 16th century. QueenElizabeth II had served as its sovereign since her ascension to the throne in 1952 until her death in 2022. Her son, KingCharles III, now sits on the throne.
The struggle between monarchists and republicans led to the Costa Rican civil war of 1823. Costa Rican monarchists includeJoaquín de Oreamuno y Muñoz de la Trinidad, José Santos Lombardo y Alvarado and José Rafael Gallegos Alvarado. Costa Rica stands out for being one of the few countries with foreign monarchism, that is, where the monarchists did not intend to establish an indigenous monarchy. Costa Rican monarchists were loyal to Emperor Agustín de Iturbide of theFirst Mexican Empire.
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After the independence of thegeneral captaincy of Guatemala from theSpanish empire, she joined theFirst Mexican Empire for a brief period, this unleashed the division of the Honduran elites. These were divided between the annexationists, made up mostly of illustrious Spanish-descendant families and members of the conservative party who supported the idea of being part of an empire, and the liberals who wanted Central America to be a separate nation under a republican system.
The greatest example of this separation was in the two most important cities of the province, on the one handComayagua, which firmly supported the legitimacy of Iturbide I as emperor and remained a pro-monarchist bastion in Honduras, and on the other handTegucigalpa who supported the idea of forming a federation of Central American states under a republican system.
After obtaining independence from Spain, theFirst Mexican Empire was established under EmperorAgustín I. His reign lasted less than one year, and he was forcefully deposed. In 1864, theSecond Mexican Empire was formed under EmperorMaximilian I. Maximilian's government enjoyed French aid, but opposition from America, and collapsed after three years. Much like Agustín I, Maximilian I was deposed and later executed by his republican enemies. Since 1867, Mexico has not possessed a monarchy.
Today, some Mexican monarchist organizations advocate forMaximilian von Götzen-Iturbide orCarlos Felipe de Habsburgo to be instated as the Emperor of Mexico.
Themiskito ethnic group inhabits part of the Atlantic coast ofHonduras andNicaragua, by the beginning of the 17th century the said ethnic group was reorganized under a single chief known as Ta Uplika, for the reign of his grandson KingOldman I this group had a very close relationship With the English, they managed to turn the Mosquitia coast into an English protectorate that would decline in the 19th century until it completely disappeared in 1894 with the abdication ofRobert II.[32]
Currently, the Miskitos who are shot between the two countries have denounced the neglect of their communities and abuses committed by the authorities. As a result of this, inNicaragua several Miskito people began a movement of separatism from present-day Nicaragua and a re-institution of the monarchy.
English settlers first established the colony ofJamestown in 1607, taking its name after KingJames VI and I. For 169 years, theThirteen Colonies were ruled by the authority of the British crown. The Thirteen American Colonies possessed a total of 10 monarchs, ending withGeorge III. During theAmerican Revolutionary War, the colonies declared independence from Britain in 1776. Despite erroneous popular belief, the Revolutionary war was in fact fought over independence, not anti-monarchism as is commonly believed. In fact, many American colonists who fought in the war against George III were monarchists themselves, who opposed George, but desired to possess a different king. Additionally, the American colonists received the financial support ofLouis XVI andCharles III of Spain during the war.
After the U.S. declared its independence, the form of government by which it would operate still remained unsettled. At least two of America'sFounding Fathers,Alexander Hamilton andNathaniel Gorham, believed that America should be an independent monarchy. Various proposals to create an American monarchy were considered, including thePrussian scheme which would have madePrince Henry of Prussia king of the United States. Hamilton proposed that the leader of America should be an elected monarch, while Gorham pushed for a hereditary monarchy.[33][34] U.S. military officerLewis Nicola also desired for America to be a monarchy, suggestingGeorge Washington accept the crown of America, which he declined. All attempts ultimately failed, and America was founded a Republic.
During theAmerican Civil War, a return to monarchy was considered as a way to solve the crisis, though it never came to fruition. Since then, the idea has possessed low support, but has been advocated by some public figures such asRalph Adams Cram,Solange Hertz,Leland B. Yeager,Michael Auslin,Charles A. Coulombe, andCurtis Yarvin.
From gaining its independence in 1822 until 1889,Brazil was governed as a constitutional monarchy with a branch of thePortuguese Royal Family serving as monarchs. Prior to this period, Brazil had been a royal colony which had also served briefly as the seat of government for thePortuguese Empire following the occupation of that country by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1808. The history of the Empire of Brazil was marked by brief periods of political instability, several wars that Brazil won, and a marked increase in immigration which saw the arrival of both Jews and Protestants who were attracted by Brazil's reputation for religious tolerance. The final decades of the Empire under the reign ofPedro II saw a remarkable period of relative peace both at home and internationally, coupled with dramatic economic expansion, the extension of basic civil rights to most people and the gradual restriction ofslavery, culminating in its final abolition in 1888. It is also remembered for its thriving culture and arts. However, Pedro II had little interest in preserving the monarchy and passively accepted its overthrow by a military coup d'état in 1889 resulting in the establishment of a dictatorship known as theFirst Brazilian Republic.[35]
The majority of current monarchies areconstitutional monarchies. In a constitutional monarchy the power of the monarch is restricted by either a written or unwritten constitution, this should not be confused with aceremonial monarchy, in which the monarch holds only symbolic power and plays very little to no part in government or politics. In some constitutional monarchies the monarch does play a more active role in political affairs than in others. InThailand, for instance, KingBhumibol Adulyadej, who reigned from 1946 to 2016, played a critical role in the nation's political agenda and in various military coups. Similarly, inMorocco, KingMohammed VI wields significant, but not absolute power.
Liechtenstein is a democraticprincipality whose citizens have voluntarily given more power to their monarch in recent years.
There remain a handful of countries in which the monarchy is anabsolute monarchy. The majority of these countries are oil-producingArabIslamic monarchies likeSaudi Arabia,Bahrain,Qatar,Oman, and theUnited Arab Emirates. Other strong monarchies includeBrunei andEswatini.
Absolute monarchy stands as an opposition toanarchism and, additionally since theAge of Enlightenment;liberalism,capitalism,communism andsocialism.
Otto von Habsburg advocated a form of constitutional monarchy based on the primacy of the supreme judicial function, withhereditary succession,mediation by atribunal is warranted if suitability is problematic.[36][37]
British political scientistVernon Bogdanor justifies monarchy on the grounds that it provides for a nonpartisanhead of state, separate from thehead of government, and thus ensures that the highest representative of the country, at home and internationally, does not represent a particularpolitical party, but all people.[38] Bogdanor also notes that monarchies can play a helpful unifying role in amultinational state, noting that "In Belgium, it is sometimes said that the king is the only Belgian, everyone else being eitherFleming orWalloon" and that theBritish sovereign can belong to all of the United Kingdom'sconstituent countries (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland), without belonging to any particular one of them.[38]
Thomas Hobbes wrote that the private interest of the monarchy is the same with the public. The riches, power, and humour of a monarch arise only from the riches, strength, and reputation of his subjects. An electedHead of State is incentivised to increase his own wealth for leaving office after a few years whereas a monarch has no reason to corrupt because he would be cheating himself.[d]
Thomas Hobbes wrote that a monarch can receive wise counsel with secrecy while an assembly cannot. Advisors to the assembly tend to be well-versed more in the acquisition of their own wealth than of knowledge; are likely to give their advices in long discourses which often excite men into action but do not govern them in it, moved by the flame of passion instead of enlightenment. Their multitude is a weakness.[e]
Thomas Hobbes wrote that the resolutions of a monarch are subject to no inconsistency save for human nature; in assemblies, inconsistencies arise from the number. For in an assembly, as little as the absence of a few or the diligent appearance of a few of the contrary opinion, "undoes today all that was done yesterday".[f]
Thomas Hobbes wrote that a monarch cannot disagree with himself, out of envy or interest, but an assembly may and to such a height that may produce a civil war.[g]
TheInternational Monarchist League, founded in 1943, has always sought to promote monarchy on the grounds that it strengthens popular liberty, both in a democracy and in a dictatorship, because by definition the monarch is not beholden to politicians.
British-Americanlibertarian writer Matthew Feeney argues that European constitutional monarchies "have managed for the most part to avoid extreme politics"—specifically fascism, communism, and military dictatorship—"in part because monarchies provide a check on the wills of populist politicians" by representing entrenched customs and traditions.[39] Feeny notes that
European monarchies—such as the Danish, Belgian, Swedish, Dutch, Norwegian, and British—have ruled over countries that are among the most stable, prosperous, and free in the world.[39]
Socialist writerGeorge Orwell argued a similar point, that constitutional monarchy is effective at preventing the development offascism.
"The function of the King in promoting stability and acting as a sort of keystone in a non-democratic society is, of course, obvious. But he also has, or can have, the function of acting as an escape-valve for dangerous emotions. A French journalist said to me once that the monarchy was one of the things that have saved Britain from Fascism...It is at any rate possible that while this division of function exists a Hitler or a Stalin cannot come to power. On the whole the European countries which have most successfully avoided Fascism have been constitutional monarchies... I have often advocated that a Labour government, i.e. one that meant business, would abolish titles while retaining the Royal Family.’[40]
Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn took a different approach, arguing that liberty and equality are contradictions. As such, he argued that attempts to establish greater social equality through theabolishment of monarchy, ultimately results in a greater loss of liberty for citizens. He believed that equality can only be accomplished through the suppression of liberty, as humans are naturally unequal and hierarchical. Kuehnelt-Leddihn also believed that people are on average freer under monarchies than they are under democratic republics, as the latter tends to more easily become tyrannical throughochlocracy. InLiberty or Equality, he writes:
There is little doubt that the American Congress or the French Chambers have a power over their nations which would rouse the envy of aLouis XIV or aGeorge III, were they alive today. Not onlyprohibition, but also the income tax declaration,selective service, obligatory schooling, the fingerprinting of blameless citizens, premarital blood tests—none of these totalitarian measures would even the royal absolutism of the seventeenth century have dared to introduce.[41]
Hans-Hermann Hoppe also argues that monarchy helps to preserve individual liberty more effectively than democracy.[42]
In a 1943 essay inThe Spectator, "Equality", British authorC.S. Lewis criticized egalitarianism, and its corresponding call for the abolition of monarchy, as contrary to human nature, writing,
A man's reaction to Monarchy is a kind of test. Monarchy can easily be 'debunked'; but watch the faces, mark well the accents, of the debunkers. These are the men whose tap-root in Eden has been cut: whom no rumour of the polyphony, the dance, can reach—men to whom pebbles laid in a row are more beautiful than an arch...Where men are forbidden to honour a king they honour millionaires, athletes, or film-stars instead: even famous prostitutes or gangsters. For spiritual nature, like bodily nature, will be served; deny it food and it will gobble poison.[43]
Oxford political scientists Petra Schleiter and Edward Morgan-Jones wrote that in monarchies, it is more common to hold elections than non-electoral replacements.[44]
Notable works arguing in favor of monarchy include
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| Country | Polling firm/source | Sample size | Percentage of supporters | Date conducted | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Antigua and Barbuda | Lord Ashcroft Polls | 510 | 45% | February and March 2023 | [45] |
 Australia | Essential | 1,125 | 48% | April 2023 | [46] |
 Belgium | IVOX | 1,000 | 58% | September 2017 | [47] |
 Canada | Nanos Research | 1,001 | 48% | June 2022 | [48] |
 Denmark | Gallup | 86% | 2014 | [49] | |
 Jamaica | Lord Ashcroft Polls | 510 | 40% | February and March 2023 | [45] |
 Japan | Mainichi Shimbun | 74% | April 2019 | [50] | |
 Lesotho | Afrobarometer | 75% | June 2018 | [51] | |
 Morocco | Le Monde | 1,108 | 91% | March 2009 | [52] |
 Netherlands | EenVandaag | 56% | April 2024 | [53] | |
 New Zealand | Lord Ashcroft Polls | 2,012 | 44% | February and March 2023 | [54] |
 Norway | Nettavisen | 20,000 | 85% | 2022 | |
 Saint Vincent | Government constitutional referendum | 52,262 | 56.3% | November 2009 | |
 Spain | Spain | 65.7% | January 2024 | [55] | |
 Sweden | Novus | 73% | January 2023 | [56] | |
 Thailand | Suan Dusit Rajabhat University | 5,700 | 75% | October 2020 | [57] |
 Tuvalu | Government constitutional referendum | 1,939 | 64.9% | April 2008 | [58] |
 United Kingdom | Ipsos | 2,166 | 81% | May 2024 |
 | This section'sfactual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. The reason given is: Some information in this section is more than 10 years old. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(November 2022) |
The following is a list of former monarchies and their percentage of public support for monarchism.
Several notable public figures who advocated for monarchy or are monarchists include:
Criticism of monarchy can be targeted against the generalform of government—monarchy—or more specifically, toparticular monarchical governments as controlled by hereditaryroyal families. In some cases, this criticism can be curtailed by legal restrictions and be consideredcriminal speech, as inlèse-majesté. Monarchies inEurope and their underlying concepts, such as theDivine Right of Kings, were often criticized during theAge of Enlightenment, which notably paved the way to theFrench Revolution and theproclamation of the abolition of the monarchy inFrance. Earlier, theAmerican Revolution had seen thePatriots suppress theLoyalists and expel all royal officials. In this century, monarchies are present in the world in many forms with different degrees of royal power and involvement in civil affairs:
The twentieth century, beginning with the 1917February Revolution inRussia and accelerated by twoworld wars, saw many European countries replace theirmonarchies withrepublics, while others replaced theirabsolute monarchies withconstitutional monarchies. Reverse movements have also occurred, with brief returns of the monarchy in France under theBourbon Restoration, theJuly Monarchy, and theSecond French Empire, the Stuarts after theEnglish Civil War and the Bourbons inSpain after theFranco dictatorship.
Arepublic, according to the modern usage of the word, signifies a political community which is not under monarchical government ... in which one person does not possess the entire sovereign power.
a government having a chief of state who is not a monarch ... a government in which supreme power resides in a body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by elected officers and representatives responsible to them and governing according to law
a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by representatives chosen directly or indirectly by them. ... a state in which the head of government is not a monarch or other hereditary head of state.
[...] the local elections of 12 April [...] turned into a plebiscite between Monarchy and republicanism. It was soon clear that the republicans had won in most of the provincial capitals. [...] Alfonso XIII abdicated, and a good many cities and towns proclaimed the Republic on 14 April 1931.
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