Mohammad Daoud Khan | |
|---|---|
محمد داود خان | |
 Official portrait, 1973 | |
| 1st President of Afghanistan | |
| In office 17 July 1973 – 28 April 1978 | |
| Vice President | Sayyid Abdulillah[1] |
| Preceded by | Mohammad Zahir Shah (asKing) |
| Succeeded by | Abdul Qadir (acting) Nur Muhammad Taraki(asGeneral Secretary) |
| Head of House of Barakazai | |
| In office 17 July 1973 – 28 April 1978 | |
| Preceded by | Mohammad Zahir Shah(asKing) |
| Succeeded by | Mohammad Zahir Shah(as ex-King) |
| Prime Minister of Afghanistan | |
| In office 7 September 1953 – 10 March 1963 | |
| Monarch | Mohammad Zahir Shah |
| Preceded by | Shah Mahmud Khan |
| Succeeded by | Mohammad Yusuf |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1909-07-18)18 July 1909 |
| Died | 28 April 1978(1978-04-28) (aged 68) |
| Manner of death | Assassination |
| Resting place | near Taj Beg hill |
| Political party | National Revolutionary Party |
| Spouse(s) | PrincessZamina Begum (cousin), sister ofKing Zahir Shah |
| Children | 7 |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  Kingdom of Afghanistan(1939–1973)  Republic of Afghanistan(1973–1978) |
| Years of service | 1939–1978 |
| Rank | General |
| Battles/wars | |
Mohammad Daoud Khan,[a] (18 July 1909 – 28 April 1978), alsoromanized asDaud Khan[2] orDawood Khan,[3] was an Afghan military officer and politician who served asprime minister of Afghanistan from 1953 to 1963 and, as leader of the1973 Afghan coup d'état which overthrew themonarchy, served as the firstpresident of Afghanistan from 1973 until he himself was deposed in a coup and killed in theSaur Revolution.[4]
Born into theAfghan royal family and addressed by the prefix "Sardar", Khan started as a provincial governor and later amilitary officer before being appointed as prime minister by his cousin, KingMohammad Zahir Shah, serving for a decade. Having failed to persuade the King to implement a one-party system, Khanoverthrew the monarchy in a virtually bloodless coup with the backing ofAfghan Army officers, and proclaimed himself the first president of theRepublic of Afghanistan, establishing an autocraticone-party system under hisNational Revolutionary Party.
Khan was known for hisautocratic rule,[5] and for his educational and progressive[6] social reforms.[7] Under his regime, he headed a purge ofcommunists in the government, and many of his policies also displeased religious conservatives and liberals who were in favor of restoring the multiparty system that existed under the monarchy. Social and economic reforms implemented under his ruling were successful, but his foreign policy led to tense relations with neighboring countries. In 1978, he was deposed and assassinated during the1978 Afghan coup d'état, led by the Afghan military and the communistPeople's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA).[8][9] His body was discovered 30 years later and was identified by a small goldenQuran gifted byKing Khalid ofSaudi Arabia he always carried. He received astate funeral.[10][11]
Mohammad Daoud Khan was born inKabul,Emirate of Afghanistan, into aBarakzaiPashtun family and was the eldest son of the diplomat PrinceMohammad Aziz Khan (1877–1933; an older half-brother of KingMohammad Nadir Shah) and his wife, KhurshidBegum. His father was assassinated in 1933 inBerlin, while serving as the Afghan Ambassador to Germany. He and his brother Prince Naim Khan (1911–1978) then came under the tutelage of their uncleMohammad Hashim Khan (1884–1953). Daoud proved to be an apt student of politics.
Educated inFrance, he served as a senior administrator in theKingdom of Afghanistan, serving as Governor of the Eastern Province in 1934–35 and in 1938–39, and was Governor ofKandahar Province from 1935 to 1938.
In 1939, Khan was promoted to Commander of the Central Forces.[12] As commander, he led Afghan forces against theSafi during theAfghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947, and thereby came to national attention. Daoud's military victories contributed to his rise to power, including his later assumption of the office of prime minister.[13]
From 1946 to 1948, he served asDefense Minister, thenInterior Minister from 1949 to 1951.[14] In 1948, he served as Afghan Ambassador to France.
In 1951, he was promoted to General and served in that capacity as Commander of theCentral Corps of theAfghan Armed Forces[15] in Kabul from 1951 to 1953.[16]
Khan was appointedprime minister in September 1953 through an intra-family transfer of power, replacingShah Mahmud Khan. His ten-year tenure was noted for his foreign policy turn to theSoviet Union, the completion of theHelmand Valley project, which dramatically improved living conditions in southwestern Afghanistan, as well as tentative steps towards the emancipation of women, giving women a higher public presence,[17][18] which led to significant amounts of freedom and educational opportunities for them.[19]
With the creation of an independentPakistan in August 1947, Prime Minister Daoud Khan had rejected theDurand Line, which had been accepted as international border by successive Afghan governments for over a half a century.[20] Khan supported a nationalistic reunification of the PakistaniPashtun people with Afghanistan, but this would have involved taking a considerable amount of territory from the new nation ofPakistan and was in direct opposition to an older plan of the 1940s whereby a confederation between the two countries was proposed. The move further worried the non-Pashtun populations of Afghanistan such as the minorityHazara,Tajik, andUzbek, who suspected his intention was to increase the Pashtuns' disproportionate hold on political power.[5]
Abdul Ghaffar Khan (founder ofKhudai Khidmatgar movement), stated "that Daoud Khan only exploited the idea of reunification of Pashtun people to meet his own political ends. The idea of reunification of Pashtun people never helped Pashtuns and it only caused trouble for Pakistan. In fact it was never a reality".[21] Moreover, Daoud Khan's project for the reunification of the Pashtun people failed to gain support from the majority ofPashtuns inPakistan.[5]
In 1960, Khansent troops across the poorly-marked Durand Line into theBajaur Agency of Pakistan in an attempt to manipulate events in that area and to press the Pashtunistan issue, but the Afghan forces were defeated by the Pashtun Tribal militias. During this period, the propaganda war from Afghanistan, carried on by radio, was relentless.[22] In 1961, Daoud Khan made another attempt to invade Bajaur with larger Afghan army this time. However, Pakistan employedF-86 Sabres jets which inflicted heavy casualties against the Afghan army unit and the tribesmen fromKunar province who were supporting the Afghan army. Several Afghan soldiers were also captured and were paraded in front of international media, which in turn caused embarrassment for Daoud Khan.[5]
In 1961, as a result of his policies and support to militias in areas along the Durand Line, Pakistan closed its borders with Afghanistan and the latter severed ties, causing an economic crisis and greater dependence on theUSSR. The USSR became Afghanistan's principal trading partner. Within a few months, the USSR sent jetairplanes,tanks,heavy andlight artillery, for a heavily discounted price tag of $25 million, to Afghanistan. That same year he attended the1st Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement inBelgrade making Afghanistan one of the founding members of theNon-Aligned Movement.
As a result of continued resentment against Daoud'sautocratic rule, close ties with the USSR and economic downturn because of the blockade imposed by Pakistan, Daoud Khan was asked to resign. Instead of resigning, Daoud Khan requested KingZahir Shah to approve new 'one-party constitution' proposed by him which would in turn increase Daoud Khan's already considerable power. Upon rejection, Daoud Khan angrily resigned.[5]
The crisis was finally resolved with his forced resignation in March 1963 and the re-opening of the border in May. Pakistan continued to remain suspicious of Afghan intentions and Daoud's policy left a negative impression in the eyes of many Tajiks who felt they were being disenfranchised for the sake ofPashtun nationalism.[23] He was succeeded byMohammad Yusuf.
In 1964, King Zahir Shah introduced anew constitution, for the first time excluding all members of the royal family from the Council of Ministers. Khan had already stepped down. In addition to having been prime minister, he had also held the portfolios of Minister of Defense and Minister of Planning until 1963.[citation needed]
Khan was unsatisfied with King Zahir Shah's constitutional parliamentary system and lack of progress. He planned rebellion for more than a year[24] before he seized power from the King on 17 July 1973. Thecoup was bloodless, and backed by a large number of army officers who were loyal to him, facing no resistance.[25] Departing from tradition, and for the first time in Afghan history, he did not proclaim himselfShah, establishing instead arepublic with himself aspresident. The role of pro-communistParchamite officers in the coup led to him receiving the nickname "Red Prince" by some.[26]
King Zahir Shah's constitution establishing a parliament with elected members and the separation of powers was replaced by a now largely nominatedloya jirga (meaning "grand assembly"). The parliament was disbanded.[27]
Although he was close to the Soviet Union during his prime ministership, Khan continued the Afghan policy ofnon-alignment with the Cold War superpowers. Nor did he bring drastic pro-Soviet change to the economic system.[28]
In Khan's new cabinet, many ministers were fresh faced politicians, and only Dr Abdul Majid was a ministerial carryover from Khan's Prime Minister era (1953–1963); Majid was Minister of Education from 1953 to 1957, and from 1973 was appointed Minister of Justice until 1977. Initially about half of the new cabinet were either current members, former members or sympathizers of thePDPA, but over time their influence would be eradicated by Khan.[25][29]
| Daoud cabinet (1973) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Office | Incumbent | Took office | Left office | |||||
| Deputy Prime Minister | Mohammad Hassan Sharq | 2 August 1973 | ||||||
| Minister of Education | Niamatullah Pazhwak | 2 August 1973 | December 1974 | |||||
| Minister of Agriculture | Ghulam Jalani Bakhtari | 2 August 1973 | September 1975 | |||||
| Minister of Communications | Abdul Hamid Mohtat | 2 August 1973 | April 1974 | |||||
| Minister of Frontier and Tribal Affairs | Pacha Gul Wafadar | 2 August 1973 | April 1974 | |||||
| Minister of Interior | Faiz Mohammad | 2 August 1973 | September 1975 | |||||
| Minister of Finance | Abdulillah | 2 August 1973 | ||||||
| Minister of Justice | Abdul Majid | 2 August 1973 | ||||||
| Minister of Mines, Industries | Abdul Qayyum | 2 August 1973 | ||||||
| Minister of Information | Abdul Rahim Nawin | 2 August 1973 | ||||||
| Minister of Health | Nazar Mohammad Sikandar | 2 August 1973 | ||||||
A coup against Khan, which may have been planned before he took power, was repressed shortly after his seizure of power. In October 1973,Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal, a former prime minister and a highly respected former diplomat, was arrested in a coup plot and died in prison before his trial set for December 1973. This was at a time when Parchamites controlled the Ministry of Interior under circumstances corroborating the widespread belief that he had been tortured to death by the leftists. According to one account, Daoud Khan planned to appoint Maiwandwal as prime minister, leading to theParchamite Minister of Interior,Faiz Mohammad, along with fellow communists, framing Maiwandwal in a coup plot, then torturing him to death without Daoud Khan's knowledge.Louis Dupree wrote that Maiwandwal, one of few Afghan politicians with an international reputation, could have been a leader in a democratic process and therefore a target for communists.[30] One of the army generals arrested under suspicion of this plot with Maiwandwal wasMohammed Asif Safi, who was later released. Khan personally apologized to him for the arrest.
In 1974, he signed one of two economic packages that aimed to greatly increase the capability of the Afghan military. At this time, there were increasing concerns that Afghanistan lacked a modern army comparable to the militaries of Iran and Pakistan.
In 1975, his governmentnationalized all banks in Afghanistan, includingDa Afghanistan Bank, Afghanistan'scentral bank.[31]
Khan wanted to lessen the country's dependence on the Soviet Union and attempted to promote a new foreign policy. In 1975 he visited some countries in the Middle East, includingEgypt, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and Iran, all of which were anti-Soviet states,[32] to ask for aid,[33] He also visitedIndia.[29] Regarding theNon-Aligned Movement summit inHavana, Khan said thatCuba "only pretends to be non-aligned."[32] Surprisingly, he did not renew the Pashtunistan agitation; relations with Pakistan improved thanks to interventions from the US and theShah of Iran. These moves alerted the Soviets.
In 1977, he established his own political party, theNational Revolutionary Party, which became the focus of all political activity. In January 1977, aloya jirga approved a new constitution. It wrote in several new articles and amended others - one of these was the creation of apresidential one-party system of government.
He also began to moderate his socialist policies, although the 1977 constitution had a nationalist bend in addition to previous socialism and Islam.[27] In 1978, there was a rift with the PDPA. Internally he attempted to distance himself from the communist elements within the coup. He was concerned about the tenor of many communists in his government and Afghanistan's growing dependency on the Soviet Union. These moves were highly criticized byMoscow, which feared that Afghanistan would soon become closer to the West, especially theUnited States; the Soviets had always feared that the United States could find a way to influence the government in Kabul.
| Daoud cabinet (1977) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Office | Incumbent | Took office | Left office | |||||
| Minister of Planning | Ali Ahmad Khurram | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Defence | Ghulam Haidar Rasuli | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Interior | Abdul Qadir Nuristani | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Education | Ibrahim Majid Siraj | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Finance | Sayyid Abdullah | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Commerce | Mohammad Khan Jalalar | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Ministry of Public Works | Ghausuddin Fayeq | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Border Affairs | Abdul Qayyum | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Justice | Wafiyullah Sami'i | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Communications | Abdul Karim Atayi | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Mines, Industries | Abdul Tawab Asefi | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Water, Power | Juma Muhammad Muhammadi | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Higher Education | Ghulam Siddiq Muhibi | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Health | Abdullah Omar | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Minister of Agriculture | Azizullah Wasefi | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Ministry of Information | Abdul Rahim Navin | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Ministry without portfolio | Abdul Majid | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
| Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs | Wahid Abdullah | 13 March 1977 | ||||||
During his latter years in charge, his purge of communists in his government strained his relations with them, while his desire for one person rule created conflicts with the liberals who had been in charge during the monarchy. At the same time, his persecution of religious conservatives engendered enmity with them and their followers as well.[34]
As during his time as prime minister, Daoud Khan again pressed on the question ofPashtunistan, again leading to sometimes tense relations with Pakistan.
Daoud hosted General Secretary of theNational Awami PartyKhan Abdul Wali Khan,Ajmal Khattak, Juma Khan Sufi, Baluch guerrillas, and others. Khan's government and forces also commenced training of anti-Pakistani groups to conduct militant action and sabotage in Pakistan. The campaign was significant enough that even one of Bhutto's senior colleagues, minister of interior and head of the provincial branch ofBhutto's party of/in the then-North-West Frontier Province (renamedKhyber Pakhtunkhwa in 2010),Hayat Sherpao, was killed, ostensibly on the orders of the later-acquitted Awami Party. As a result, Afghanistan's already strained relationship with Pakistan further dipped and Pakistan likewise started similar kinds of cross-border interference. By 1975,Pakistani Prime MinisterZulfiqar Ali Bhutto, through itsInter-Services Intelligence (ISI), had begun to engage in promoting aproxy war in Afghanistan.
Since coming to power, under pressure from the PDPA and to increase domestic Pashtun support, Khan took a stronger line on the Pashtunistan issue and promoted a proxy war in Pakistan. Trade and transit agreements with Pakistan were subsequently severely affected.
The year 1975 was a watershed in Afghan-Pakistan relations. Pakistan blamed Afghanistan for unrest inBajaur agency and the bombing of aPIA B707 at Islamabad airport in 1975.[35] The 130 passengers of PIA B707 had deplaned before the explosion took place and thus no one was harmed in the explosion inside the aircraft.[36][37]
At the same time, Afghanistan also faced several short lived uprisings in retaliation in eastern Afghanistan and inPanjshir valley, which Afghanistan blamed on Pakistan. There was also deployment of additional troops by both the countries along the Afghanistan-Pakistan border.[35]
The same year Kabul was also quietly negotiating with Islamabad to defuse the tensions between the two countries.[38] In early 1976, relations between the two countries improved and the leaders of the two countries, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Douad Khan, exchanged visits. Daoud Khan was also worried about the growing power of communists within his government so he started improving his relations with Pakistan and Iran.[35] The same year Pakistan also provided aid to Afghanistan to help alleviate the suffering caused by earthquake and floods in northern Afghanistan. This gesture by Pakistan had helped mollify Afghan public opinion about Pakistan.[38]
By October 1976, the head of Pakistan intelligence agency,Jilani was informing a US diplomat that Afghanistan was no longer creating troubles for Pakistan.[35] By August 1976 relations with Pakistan had improved to a high degree.[38] Later on, while promoting his new foreign policy doctrine, Daoud Khan came to a tentative agreement on a solution to the Pashtunistan problem with Ali Bhutto.[39]
Khan metLeonid Brezhnev on a state visit to Moscow from 12 to 15 April 1977. He had asked for a private meeting with the Soviet leader to discuss with him the increased pattern of Soviet actions in Afghanistan. In particular, he discussed the intensified Soviet attempt to unite the two factions of the Afghan communist parties,Parcham andKhalq.[40] Brezhnev described Afghanistan's non-alignment as important to the USSR and essential to the promotion of peace in Asia, and warned him about the presence of experts from NATO countries stationed in the northern parts of Afghanistan. Daoud bluntly replied:
"we will never allow you to dictate to us how to run our country and whom to employ in Afghanistan. How and where we employ the foreign experts will remain the exclusive prerogative of the Afghan state. Afghanistan shall remain poor, if necessary, but free in its acts and decisions"[41][42]
"All of his life experience is evidence that Sardar Mohammad Daoud Khan would not bow to foreigners, regardless of their nationality. Particularly, in his last meeting with [Soviet leader] Leonid Brezhnev, he proved his bravery and patriotism. But KGB deceptions and the games that they played could have benefited from Daoud Khan's influence in the armed forces. So Daoud Khan, indirectly and with total unawareness, could have been manipulated by the KGB."
After returning to Afghanistan, he made plans that his government would downscale its relationship with the Soviet Union, and instead forge closer contacts with the West as well as the oil-richSaudi Arabia andIran. Afghanistan signed a co-operative military treaty withEgypt and by 1977, the Afghan military and police force were being trained byEgyptian Armed Forces. This angered theSoviet Union becauseEgypt took the same route in 1974 in distancing itself from the Soviet Union.[citation needed]
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After the murder ofMir Akbar Khyber, the prominentParchamite ideologue, his funeral on 19 April 1978 served as a rallying point for the Afghan communists. An estimated 1,000 to 3,000 people gathered to hear speeches by PDPA leaders such asNur Muhammad Taraki,Hafizullah Amin andBabrak Karmal.[44]
Shocked by this demonstration of communist unity, Khan ordered the arrest of the PDPA leaders, but he acted too slowly. It took him a week to arrest Taraki, Karmal managed to escape to theUSSR, and Amin was merely placed under house arrest. Khan had misjudged the situation and believed that Karmal's Parcham faction was the main communist threat. In fact, according to PDPA documents, Amin's Khalq faction had extensively infiltrated the military and they outnumbered Parcham cells by a factor of 2 to 3. Amin sent complete orders for the coup from his home while it was under armed guard, using his family members as messengers.
The army had been put on alert on 26 April because of a presumed coup. On 27 April 1978, acoup d'état, beginning with troop movements at the military base atKabul International Airport, gained ground slowly over the next twenty-four hours as rebels battled units loyal to Daoud Khan in and around the capital.
Khan and most of his family wereassassinated during the coup by members of thePeople's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). The coup climaxed inthe Arg, the former chief royal palace, during the early hours of 28 April 1978,[45] involving heavy fighting and many deaths.[46] Shortly afterwards, the new military leaders announced that Khan had been killed for refusing to pledge allegiance to the new regime by Lieutenant Imamuddin of the 444th Commando Battalion.[47] Upon Daoud's assassination, Afghan singer Fazal Ghani wrote the song “Khalqi Nizam” which mocked the former president for his baldness and for being “finished with one strike”, which was aired onRadio Television Afghanistan.[48]
On 28 June 2008, his body and those of his family were found in two separate mass graves outside the walls ofPul-e-Charkhi prison,District 12 of Kabul city. Initial reports indicate that sixteen corpses were in one grave and twelve in the other.[10] On 4 December 2008, the Afghan Health Ministry announced that Daoud's body had been identified on the basis of teeth molds and a small golden Quran, a present he had received from theKing of Saudi Arabia, found near the body.[49]
On 17 March 2009, General Daoud was given a state funeral.[10] His only surviving child, Dorkhanai, attended the funeral.[11]
Daoud and following family members that were killed on the same day on 28 April 1978 are buried at an incomplete hilltop tomb located 2.5 km west ofDarul Aman Palace, Kabul.[50][51]
News sources in the 1970s claimed that General Daoud Khan said he was happiest when he could "light his American cigarettes with Soviet matches."[52][33]
Mohammad Daoud Khan was retrospectively described as an "old-fashioned statesman, compassionate yet reserved and authoritarian" byThe Guardian's Nushin Arbabzadeh.[26] Then-PresidentHamid Karzai hailed Khan's courage and patriotism in comments after his 2009 state funeral, saying he was "always thinking of the advancement and prosperity of the country."[53] Some Afghans fondly consider him to be the best leader their country has had in modern times.[54]
During his time as prime minister and president, Khan was highly unpopular among the non-Pashtun minorities in Afghanistan because of his alleged Pashtun favouritism.[55] During his regime, all significant positions in the government, army and educational institutions were held byPashtuns. His attempt at thePashtunisation of Afghanistan reached such an extent that the word 'Afghan' started being used to refer only to Pashtuns and not to the other minority groups who collectively formed a majority in Afghanistan.[56]
TheAfghan Armed Forces were allied with Daoud Khan and supported his goal of promotingPashtuns to higher posts in theAfghan Armed Forces. In 1963, AfghanUzbeks were barred from becoming high-ranking officers in the Afghan armed forces. Similarly only a fewTajiks were allowed to hold the position of officer in the Afghan army, while other ethnicities were excluded from those positions, despite making up more than 50% of the Royal Afghan Army’s personnel.[57]
Daoud Khan viewed the Afghan armed forces as a crucial vector in the Pashtunisation of Afghan state.[58] ThePanjshir uprising in 1975 is also believed to be result of anti-Pashtun frustration which had been building up in Panjshir valley as result of Daoud Khan's policies.[59]
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In September 1934, Daoud Khan married his cousin,PrincessZamina Begum (11 January 1917 – 28 April 1978), sister ofKing Zahir (15 October 1914 – 23 July 2007). The couple had four sons and four daughters:
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| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Prime Minister of Afghanistan 1953–1963 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded byasKing | 1stPresident of Afghanistan 1973–1978 | Succeeded byas Chairman of the Presidium of theRevolutionary Council |
| Vacant Title next held by Mohammad Najibullah(1987) | ||
| Daoud Republic(President) | |
|---|---|
 Democratic Republic(Chairman) | |
 Islamic State(President) | |
 Islamic Emirate(Supreme Leader) | |
 Transitional Islamic State(President) | |
 Islamic Republic(President) | |
| Islamic Emirate(Supreme Leader) | |
| |
| Kingdom | |
|---|---|
| Democratic Republic(Chairman) | |
| Islamic State | |
| Islamic Emirate(1996–2001) | |
| Islamic Emirate(since 2021) | |
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| People | |
| Other | |
