Moghulistan Моголистан Mogholistan | |||||||||||||||
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.png) Location of Moghulistan (Eastern Chagatai Khanate) in 1490 | |||||||||||||||
| Capital | Almaliq | ||||||||||||||
| Common languages |
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| Religion | Tengrism, laterSunni Islam | ||||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||
| Khan | |||||||||||||||
• 1347–1363 | Tughluk Timur | ||||||||||||||
• 1363–1368 | Ilyas Khoja | ||||||||||||||
• 1429–1462 | Esen Buqa II | ||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Late Middle Ages | ||||||||||||||
• Formation of the Moghulistan | 1347 | ||||||||||||||
• Moghulistan split into two parts | 1462 | ||||||||||||||
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| Today part of | |||||||||||||||
Moghulistan,[a] also called theMoghul Khanate or theEastern Chagatai Khanate,[b] was aMuslim,Mongol, and laterTurkic breakawaykhanate of theChagatai Khanate and a historical geographic area north of theTengri Tagh mountain range,[2] on the border ofCentral Asia andEast Asia. That area today includes parts ofKazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan, and northwestXinjiang,China. The khanate nominally ruled over the area from the mid-14th century until the late 17th century.
Beginning in the mid-14th century a new khanate, in the form of a nomadic tribal confederacy headed by a member of the family of Chagatai, arose in the region of theIli River. It is therefore considered to be a continuation of the Chagatai Khanate, but it is also referred to as theMoghul Khanate.[3]
In actuality, local control rested with local MongolDughlats orNaqshbandi Sufis in their respectiveoases. Although the rulers enjoyed great wealth from trade with theMing dynasty, it was beset by constantcivil war and invasions by theTimurid Empire, which emerged from the western part of the erstwhile Chagatai Khanate. The khanate was split into theTurpan Khanate based on the city ofTurpan, and theYarkent Khanate based on the city ofYarkent, until theDzungar Khanate conquered the region by the early 18th century.
"Moghulistan" is a Persian name and simply means "Land of the Moghuls" orMongols (the termMoghul orMughal isPersian for "Mongol" and-istan meansland in Persian) in reference to the eastern branch of the ethnic MongolChagataiKhans who ruled it.[5] The term "Moghulistan" occurs mostly inSoviet historiography, whileChinese historiography mostly uses the term "East Chagatai Khanate" (Chinese:东察合台汗国; pinyin:Dōng Cháhétái Hànguó), which contrasts Moghulistan to theTimurid Empire. The Moghul Khans considered themselves heir to Mongol traditions and called themselvesMongghul Uls, from which the Persian term "Moghulistan" comes.Ming dynasty Mandarins called the Moghuls "the Mongol tribes inBeshbalik (Chinese:别失八里; pinyin:Bié Shī Bā Lǐ)". The Timuridexonym for Moghulistan wasUlus-i Jatah.[2]
When the Mongols conquered most ofAsia andRussia in the 13th century and constructed theMongol Empire, they lived as minorities in many of the regions they had subdued, such asIran andChina. As a result,[citation needed] theMongols in these regions quickly adopted the local culture. For example, in the PersianIlkhanate theMongol khans adoptedIslam and Persian culture after less than half a century, while the khans of theYuan dynasty embraced Chinese court customs. In contrast, the Mongols and their subordinates who settled in what came to be known as Moghulistan were in origin steppe nomads fromMongolia.[6] Because of this, they were much more resistant to changing their way of life; they retained their primarily nomadic lifestyle for several centuries and were among the last of the Mongols who converted to Islam to do so. During the 14th century the inhabitants of Moghulistan were known as "Mogul" while the Mogul chieftains and aristocracy used titles of turkic and turko-persian origin, such as "Mirza", "Bek", and "Amir".[citation needed] Despite that, the first khan of Moghulistan Tughluk Timur, became Muslim in 1354 alongside 160,000 followers.[7] This event ultimately markedislamization of Moghulistan.
Moghols formed from numerousTurkic tribes ofDesht-Kipchak (Qangli,Qipchaq, etc), Mongolic tribes from Mongolia (Arlat, Barin,Barlas, Besüd,Dughlat,Qunghrat/Kongirat [ru], Sudus), and Non-Mongolic tribes from Mongolia (Jalayir[ru],Kereyit,Merkit,Naiman).[8] The Muslim view of the Turks as Inner Asian nomads was adopted by the Mongols of the Ilkhanate and the Mongol successors in Central Asia (Timurids, Moghuls, and Shibanid Uzbeks), who viewed themselves as the most prominent branch of the Turks.[9] Moghols adopted the Turkic language resulting in formation ofChagatai Turkic language. According toVasily Bartold, there are "some indications that some of the Moghuls still spokeMongolian until the early 16th century".[10] For the sedentary Mongols in Transoxiana, the nomadic Mongols to their east represented a bastion of true Mongol culture, hence the name "Moghulistan".[11]
Since theMoghuls were nomads of the steppe, the boundaries of their territories seldom stayed the same for long. Still, Moghulistan in the strictest sense was centered in theIli region. It was bounded on the west by the province ofShash and theKaratau Mountains, while the southern area ofLake Balkhash marked the northern limit of Moghul influence. From there the border gradually sloped in a southeastern direction until it reached the eastern portion of theTian Shan Mountains. The Tian Shan then served as the southern border of Moghulistan. Besides Moghulistan proper, the Moghuls also nominally controlled modern-dayDzungaria (northernXinjiang, including theTurpan Depression) andNanjiang (southern Xinjiang, including theTarim Basin). Besides Moghulistan, Nanjiang, and Beijiang, several other regions were also temporarily subjected to Moghul rule at one time or another, such asTashkent,Ferghana and parts ofBadakhshan. Moghulistan proper was primarily steppe country and was where the Moghuls usually resided. Because of the Moghuls' nomadic nature, the towns of Moghulistan fell into decline during their rule, if they managed to remain occupied at all.
Aside from the towns, which were at the foot of the mountains, nearly all ofNanjiang was desert. As a result, the Moghuls generally stayed out of the region and it was a poor source of manpower. TheDughlat amirs or leaders from theNaqshbandi Islamic order administered these towns in the name of the Moghul khans until 1514.[5] The Moghuls more directly governed Nanjiang after they lost Moghulistan itself. The capital city of Nanjiang was usually Yarkand or Kashgar. A contemporary Chinese term for part of the Nanjiang area was "Southern Tian Shan route" (Chinese:天山南路; pinyin:Tiānshān Nánlù), as opposed to the "Northern" route, i.e.Dzungaria.[12]
A laterTurki word "Altishahr", meaning "Six Cities", came into vogue during the rule of the 19th century Tajik warlordYaqub Beg, which is an imprecise term for certain western, then Muslim oasis cities.[13]Shoqan Walikhanov names them asYarkand,Kashgar,Hotan,Aksu,Uch-Turpan, andYangi Hisar; two definitions byAlbert von Le Coq substituteBachu (Maralbishi) for Uch-Turfan orYecheng (Karghalik) for Aksu. During Yaqub's rule,Turfan substituted for Uch-Turfan, and other informants identify seven, rather than six cities in "Alti-shahr".[13] The borders of Alti-Shahr were better defined than those of Moghulistan, with the Tian Shan marking the northern boundary, thePamirs the western, and theKunlun Shan the southern. The eastern border usually was slightly to the east ofKucha.
The Buddhist kingdom in Beijiang centered aroundTurfan was the only area where the people were identified as "Uyghurs" after the Islamic invasions.[14] The broader Turfan area was bordered by Nanjiang to the west, the Tian Shan to the north, the Kunlun Shan to the south, and the principality ofHami. In 1513 Hami became a dependency of Turfan and remained so until the end of Moghul rule. As a result, the Moghuls became direct neighbors ofMing China. Although the term "Uyghurstan" was used for the Turfan city-state, the term is confused in Muslim sources withCathay. The Uyghur khans had voluntarily become Mongol vassals during the reign ofGenghis Khan and as a result were allowed to retain their territories. As theMongol Empire was split up in the middle of the 13th century, theXinjiang region was assigned to theChagatayids. The power of the Uyghur khans slowly declined under Mongol rule until the last recorded khan was forcibly converted to Islam in the 1380s or 90s. After the 15th century it seems to have been subjected to direct Moghul rule, and a separate Moghul Khanate was established there in mid-15th century. After the Islamization of Turfan, the non-Islamic term "Uyghur" would disappear until theChinese Nationalist leaderSheng Shicai, following theSoviet Union, introduced it for a different, Muslim population in 1934.[14]
Arguments about succession resulted in the breakup of theMongol Empire in Asia into theChagatai Khanate in Central Asia,Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) in China,Ilkhanate in Persia, andGolden Horde inDesht-i-Kipchak, which waged destructive wars with one another.
Moghulistan, which had formed the eastern portion of the Chagatai Khanate, became independent in 1347 under the Chagatayid namedTughlugh Timur. There is no accepted date for the dissolution of the Chagatai Khanate, although some historians mark it with the ascendance of Tughlugh. There were few contemporary histories of Moghulistan, in contrast to the well-documentedTimurid Empire; most of modern knowledge about the region comes from theTarikh-i-Rashidi, the only primary source for the region.[2]
The eastern regions of the Chagatai Khanate in the early 14th century had been inhabited by a number of Mongol nomadic tribes. These tribes resented the conversion of Tarmashirin to Islam and the move of the khan to the sedentary areas of Transoxiana. They were behind the revolt that ended in Tarmashirin's death. One of the khans that followed Tarmashirin,Changshi, favored the east and was non-Muslim.[15]
In the 1340s as a series of ephemeral khans struggled to hold power in Transoxiana, little attention was paid by the Chagatayids to the eastern regions. As a result, the eastern tribes there were virtually independent. The most powerful of the tribes, theDughlats, controlled extensive territories in Moghulistan and the westernTarim Basin. In 1347 the Dughlats decided to appoint a khan of their own, and raised the ChagatayidTughlugh Timur to the throne.[16]
Tughlugh Timur (1347–1363) was thereby made the head of a tribal confederacy that governed the Tarim Basin and the steppe area of Moghulistan (named after the Moghuls). His reign was contemporaneous with the series of puppet khans that ruled in Transoxiana, meaning that there were now effectively two khanates headed by Chagatayids: one in the west, centered in Transoxiana, and one in the east, centered in Moghulistan. Unlike the khans in the west, however, Tughlugh Timur was a strong ruler who converted to Islam (1354) and sought to reduce the power of the Dughlats.[17] Tughlugh Timur converted to Islam, whose concepts ofummah,ghazat (holy war), andjihad inspired his territorialexpansionism intoTransoxiana. The conversion was also politically convenient in that he branded the dissident princes which he killed as "heathens and idolaters".[2] Conversion amongst the general population was slow to follow. In 1360 he took advantage of a breakdown of order in Transoxiana and his legitimacy as descendant of Chagatai Khan[18] to invade the region and take control of it, thereby temporarily reuniting the two khanates. Despite invading a second time in 1361 and appointing his sonIlyas Khoja as ruler of Transoxiana, however, Tughlugh Timur was unable to keep a lasting hold on the region, and the Moghuls were ultimately expelled by Amir Husayn and Timur, who then fought amongst themselves for control of Transoxiana.[19]
Chagatayid rule in Moghulistan was temporarily interrupted by the coup of the Dughlat AmirQamar-ud-Din, who likely killed Ilyas Khoja in 1368 and several other Chagatayids. This takeover provoked a period of near-constantcivil wars, because thetribal chiefs could not accept that Qamar-ud-Din, a "commoner", could accede to the throne. Opposition to Qamar-ud-Din within his own Dughlat tribe compromised the unity of Moghulistan, asMirza Abu Bakr Dughlat took control ofKashgar.[2] The Moghuls that remained obedient to him were constantly at war with Timur, who invaded Moghulistan several times but was unable to catch Dughlat invaders.[20] Timur sent at least five victorious expeditions to Moghulistan, seriously weakeningQamar-ud-Din's regime. The Moghuls had sent an unsuccessful supplication to theHongwu Emperor of China pleading for help, asTamerlane had also wanted to conquer China,[2] while emphasizing that Transoxiana was the land belonging to their own Moghul forefathers, regarding the Timurids control over Transoxiana as illegitimate.[21] Although a military alliance did not result, theMing dynasty opened up caravan trade to Moghulistan, greatly enriching the Moghul rulers who collectedzakat (tax) on the lucrativeSilk Road trade.[22] This trade ushered in an era of economic and cultural exchange with China, in exchange for the state accepting (what the Ming saw as)tributary status to the Ming.[5]
After theHan Chinese united and expelled the Mongols from China, establishing theMing dynasty (1368–1644), Yuan Mongol refugees, principally of theBorjigin clan, migrated to the eastern Chagatai Khanate.[22] Those Mongols allied with the nomadicBuddhist,Christian andShamanist rebels of theIssyk Kul and Isi areas against the Chagatai KhanTarmashirin in the 1330s upon his conversion toIslam.
A Chagatayid restoration occurred in the 1380s, when the Dughlats enthroned the surviving Chagatayid heirKhizr Khoja, but the Dughlats retained an important position within the khanate; for the next forty years they installed several khans of their own choosing.[23] After being restored to the throne by the Dughlats, Khizr Khoja married his sister toAmir Timur, then personally led a holy war against "Khitay" (the Uyghurs inTurfan andQocho), forcibly converting them to Islam and putting an end to the Uyghur polity.[24]
During the 15th century the Moghuls had to deal with several enemy incursions by theOirats,Timurids andUzbeks.
Moghul rule in the region was restored byUwais Khan (1418–1428), a devout Muslim who was frequently at war with the Oirats (Western Mongols) who roamed in the area east ofLake Balkash. He was usually defeated and even captured twice by the OiratEsen Tayishi, but was able to secure his release both times. Uvais Khan was followed byEsen Buqa (1428–1462), who frequently raided the Timurid Empire to the west.
Late in his reign Esen Buqa was contested by his brotherYunus Khan (1462–1487), who had been raised to the khanship by the Timurids in an attempt to counter Esen Buqa. When Esen Buqa died in 1462, the Dughlat amirs were divided over whether they should follow his son Dost Muhammad, who was then seventeen or his brotherYunus Khan.[25] After the death ofDost Muhammad in 1469,[26] Yunus Khan reunited the khanate, defeated theUzbeks and maintained good relations with theKazakhs and Timurids, but the western Tarim Basin was lost to a revolt by the Dughlats. In 1484 he capturedTashkent from the Timurids.[27]
Yunus Khan (1462–1487) profited from the weakness of his neighbors and took Tashkent in 1482. Towards the end of Yunus' reign, his sonAhmad Alaq founded a breakaway eastern Khanate in greater Turpan.
During the 15th century the Moghul khans became increasingly Turkified. Yunus Khan is even mentioned to have the looks of aTajik instead of those of a Mongol.[28] This Turkification may not have been as extensive amongst the general Moghul population,[29] who were also slower to convert to Islam than the khan and top amirs (although by the mid-fifteenth century the Moghuls were considered to be largely Muslim[30]). The khans also adopted the Islamicsharia in favor of the MongolYassa.[31][32]
After Yunus Khan's death his territories were divided by his sons.Ahmad Alaq (1487–1503), who ruled eastern Moghulistan orTurpan Khanate from Turpan, fought a series of successful wars against the Oirats, raided Chinese territory and attempted to seize the western Tarim Basin from the Dughlats, although he was ultimately unsuccessful. In 1503 he traveled west to assist his brotherMahmud Khan (1487–1508), the ruler of western Moghulistan in Tashkent, against the Uzbeks underMuhammad Shaybani. The brothers were defeated and captured; they were released but Tashkent was seized by the Uzbeks. Ahmad Alaq died soon after and was succeeded by his sonMansur Khan (1503–1545), who capturedHami fromKara Del, a Mongol dependency of Ming China, in 1513. Mahmud Khan spent several years trying to regain his authority in Moghulistan; he eventually gave up and submitted to Muhammad Shaybani, who executed him.[33] The rest of western Moghulistan (the area of modern Kyrgyzstan) were gradually lost to Kyrgyz tribes.[34] In 1469-70 Kyrgyz belonging to the Oirat confederacy migrated into the Tian Shan mountains in Moghulistan. The Kyrgyz tribes led byTagai Biy and rebelled against the Moghuls; by 1510–11, they had effectively driven out the Moghuls. However, as late as 1526–27, the Moghul Khan Sultan Said still attempted but failed to return the Kyrgyz to subjugation.[35]
Mansur Khan's brotherSultan Said Khan (1514–1533) conquered the western Tarim Basin fromMirza Abu Bakr Dughlat in 1514 and set himself up inKashgar forming theYarkent Khanate. Thereafter the Moghulistan khanate was permanently divided, although Sultan Said Khan was nominally a vassal of Mansur Khan inTurpan. After Sultan Said Khan's death from high altitudeedema in a failed 1533 attack on Tibet[34] he was succeeded byAbdurashid Khan (1533–1565), who began his reign by executing a member of the Dughlat family. A nephew of the dead amir,Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat fled toMughal Empire in India and eventually conqueredKashmir, where he wrote a history of the Moghuls. Abdurrashid Khan also fought for control of (western) Moghulistan against the Kirghiz-Kazakhs of the Great Horde, but (western) Moghulistan was ultimately lost; thereafter the Moghuls were largely restricted to possession of the Tarim Basin.[36]
| History of theMongols |
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In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, theYarkent Khanate (1514–1705) underwent a period of decentralization, with numerous subkhanates springing up with centers at Kashgar,Yarkand,Aksu andKhotan.
In the late 16th and 17th centuries power in the Moghul states gradually shifted from the Khans to thekhojas, who were influential religious leaders in the 16th century of theSufiNaqshbandi order. The Khans increasingly gave up secular power to thekhojas, until they were the effectively the governing power in Kashgaria. At the same time the Kyrgyz began to penetrate into Alti-Shahr as well.
The khojas themselves were divided into two sects: theAq Taghlik and theKara Taghlik. This situation persisted until the 1670s, when the Moghul khans apparently tried to reassert their authority by expelling the leader of the Aq Taghlik.[37]
In 1677, Khoja Afaq of the Aq Taghlik fled to Tibet where he asked the 5th Dalai Lama for help to restore his power. The Dalai Lama arranged for the BuddhistDzungar Khanate who inhabited the lands north of the Yarkent khanate to invade in 1680, and set up puppet rulers in Yarkent.[38]
The Yashkent Khanate were finally overthrown in the 1705, bringing an end to Chagatayid rule in Central Asia.[39] Kashghar begs and Kyrgyz staged a revolt and seizedAkbash Khan during an assault on Yarkand. The Yarkand begs then asked the Dzungars to intervene, which resulted in the Dzungars defeating the Kyrgyz and putting a total termination to Chagatai rule by installing the Aq Taghlik in Kashgar. They also helped the Aq Taghlik overcome the Kara Taghlik in Yarkand. A short time later, the Moghul kingdom of Turpan and Hami was also conquered by theZunghar Khanate, but the Zunghars were expelled byQing China. Descendants of the Chagatayid house submitted to the Qing and ruled theKumul Khanate (1696–1930) as vassals of China until 1930.Maqsud Shah was the last of them, who died in 1930.[40] The Tarim Basin fell under the overall rule of the Dzungars until it was taken by theManchu Emperors of China in the mid-18th century.[41]
The town of Aqsu (in Chinese Turkestan) and the region to the west of it were ruled, down to 873/1468-9, by Esen-buqa's son Dost-Muhammad, after whose death Yunus occupied Aqsu.
The author of the "Tarikh-i-Rashidi" gives the following chronogram of the death of Dost Muhammad Khan of Aksu: = 877 H. "That pig died."
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