For many years, Mussorgsky's works were mainly known in versions revised or completed by other composers. Many of his most important compositions have posthumously come into their own in their original forms, and some of the original scores are now also available.
The aristocratic Mussorgsky brothers—Filaret (also known as "Yevgeniy", left), and Modest (right) in 1858Monument on the site of the Mussorgsky family house inKarevo, Pskov Oblast[2][3]
The spelling and pronunciation of the composer's name have caused some confusion.
The family name derives from a 15th- or 16th-century ancestor, Roman Vasilyevich Monastyryov, who appears in theVelvet Book, the 17th-century genealogy of Russianboyars. Roman Vasilyevich bore the nickname "Musorga" (from Greek:μουσουργός,romanized: musurgos, meaning "music maker"[4]), and was the grandfather of the first Mussorgsky. The composer could trace his lineage toRurik, the legendary ninth-century prince ofNovgorod and founder of theRussian monarchy.[5]
In Mussorgsky family documents, the spelling of the name varies: "Musarskiy", "Muserskiy", "Muserskoy", "Musirskoy", "Musorskiy", and "Musurskiy". The baptismal record gives the composer's name as "Muserskiy".[6]
In early (up to 1858) letters toMily Balakirev, the composer signed his name "Musorskiy" (Мусoрский).[7] The "g" made its first appearance in a letter to Balakirev in 1863.[8] Mussorgsky used this new spelling (Мусoргскій,Musorgskiy) to the end of his life, but occasionally reverted to the earlier "Musorskiy".[9][10] The addition of the "g" to the name was likely initiated by the composer's elder brother Filaret to obscure the resemblance of the name's root to an unsavory Russian word:[11]
Mussorgsky apparently did not take the new spelling seriously and played on the "rubbish" connection in letters toVladimir Stasov and to Stasov's family, routinely signing his nameMusoryanin, roughly "garbage-dweller" (comparedvoryanin: "nobleman").[10]
The first syllable of the name originally received thestress (i.e., MÚS-ər-skiy), and does so to this day in Russia, including the composer's home district. Themutability of the second-syllable vowel in the versions of the name mentioned above gives evidence that this syllable did not receive the stress.[13]
The addition of the "g" and the accompanying shift in stress to the second syllable (i.e., Mu-SÓRK-skiy), sometimes described as a Polish variant, was supported by Filaret Mussorgsky's descendants until his line ended in the 20th century. Their example was followed by many influential Russians, such asFyodor Shalyapin,Nikolay Golovanov, andTikhon Khrennikov, who, perhaps dismayed that the great composer's name was "reminiscent of garbage", supported the second-syllable stress that has also become entrenched in the West.[14]
The Western convention of doubling the first "s", which is not observed in scholarly literature (e.g.,The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians), likely arose because in many Western European languages a singleintervocalic /s/ often becomesvoiced to /z/ (as in "music"), unlike inSlavic languages where the intervocalic /s/ is always unvoiced. Doubling the consonant thus reinforces its voicelesssibilant /s/ sound.
"Modest" is the Russian form of the name "Modestus" which means "moderate" or "restrained" inLate Latin.[15][16] He was called "Modinka" (Модинька), diminutive form with the stressed O, by his close friends and relatives.[17]
Mussorgsky was born inKarevo, Toropets Uyezd,Pskov Governorate, Russian Empire, 400 km (250 mi) south ofSaint Petersburg. His wealthy and land-owning family, the noble family ofMussorgsky, is reputedly descended fromRurik, through the sovereign princes ofSmolensk. His mother, Julia Chirikova, was the daughter of a comparatively non-rich nobleman. Modest's paternal grandmother Irina used to be aserf that could be sold without land in his grandfather's estate.[18][d] At age six, Mussorgsky began receiving piano lessons from his mother, herself a trained pianist. His progress was sufficiently rapid that three years later, he was able to perform aJohn Field concerto and works byFranz Liszt for family and friends. At age 10, Mussorgsky and his brother were taken to Saint Petersburg to study at the elite German languagePetrischule (St. Peter's School). While there, Modest studied the piano withAnton Gerke [ru]. In 1852, the 12-year-old Mussorgsky published a piano piece titled "Porte-enseigne Polka" at his father's expense.
Mussorgsky's parents planned the move to Saint Petersburg so that both their sons would renew the family tradition of military service.[21] Mussorgsky entered the Cadet School of the Guards at age 13. Controversy had arisen over the educational attitudes at the time of both this institute and its director, General Sutgof.[22] All agreed the Cadet School could be a brutal place, especially for new recruits.[23] More tellingly for Mussorgsky, it was likely where he began his eventual path to alcoholism.[23] According to a former student, singer and composer Nikolai Kompaneisky, Sutgof "was proud when a cadet returned from leave drunk with champagne."[24]
Music still remained important to Mussorgsky. Sutgof's daughter was also a pupil of Gerke, and Mussorgsky was allowed to attend lessons with her.[22] His skills as a pianist made Mussorgsky much in demand by fellow-cadets; for them, he would play dances interspersed with his ownimprovisations.[25] In 1856, Mussorgsky – who had developed a strong interest in history and studied German philosophy – graduated from the Cadet School. Following family tradition, he received a commission with thePreobrazhensky Regiment, the foremost regiment of the Russian Imperial Guard.[25]
In October 1856, the 17-year-old Mussorgsky met the 22-year-oldAlexander Borodin while both men served at a military hospital in Saint Petersburg. The two were soon on good terms.[26] Borodin later remembered:
His little uniform was spic and span, close-fitting, his feet turned outwards, his hair smoothed down and greased, his nails perfectly cut, his hands well groomed like a lord's. His manners were elegant, aristocratic: his speech likewise, delivered through somewhat clenched teeth, interspersed with French phrases, was rather precious. There was a touch—though very moderate—offoppishness. His politeness and good manners were exceptional. The ladies made a fuss of him. He sat at the piano and, throwing up his hands coquettishly, played with extreme sweetness and grace (etc) extracts fromTrovatore,Traviata, and so on, and around him buzzed in chorus: "Charmant, délicieux!" and suchlike. I met Modest Petrovich three or four times at Popov's in this way, both on duty and at the hospital."[27]
Alexander Dargomyzhsky
More portentous was Mussorgsky's introduction that winter toAlexander Dargomyzhsky, at that time the most important Russian composer afterMikhail Glinka. Dargomyzhsky was impressed with Mussorgsky's pianism. As a result, Mussorgsky became a fixture at Dargomyzhsky's soirées. There, as criticVladimir Stasov later recalled, he began "his true musical life."[28]
Over the next two years at Dargomyzhsky's, Mussorgsky met several figures of importance in Russia's cultural life, among them Stasov,César Cui (a fellow officer), andMily Balakirev. Balakirev had an especially strong impact. Within days he took it upon himself to help shape Mussorgsky's fate as a composer. He recalled to Stasov, "Because I am not a theorist, I could not teach him harmony (as, for instanceRimsky-Korsakov now teaches it) ... [but] I explained to him the form of compositions, and to do this we played through bothBeethoven symphonies [as piano duets] and much else (Schumann,Schubert,Glinka, and others), analyzing the form."[29] Up to this point, Mussorgsky had known nothing but piano music; his knowledge of more radical recent music was virtually non-existent. Balakirev started filling these gaps in Mussorgsky's knowledge.[30]
In 1858, within a few months of beginning his studies with Balakirev, Mussorgsky resigned his commission to devote himself entirely to music.[31] He also suffered a painful crisis at this time. This may have had a spiritual component (in a letter to Balakirev the young man referred to "mysticism and cynical thoughts about the Deity"), but its exact nature will probably never be known. In 1859, the 20-year-old gained valuable theatrical experience by assisting in a production of Glinka's operaA Life for the Tsar on the Glebovo estate of a former singer and her wealthy husband; Mussorgsky also metKonstantin Lyadov [fr;ru] (father ofAnatoly Lyadov) and enjoyed a formative visit to Moscow – after which he professed love of "everything Russian". Mussorgsky and his brother were also inspired by thegothic script, they were using an "M" personal sign instead offamily coat of arms, very similar tothe symbols of the early Rurikids.[32]
Gustave Flaubert. Mussorgsky started an opera based on hisSalammbô but did not finish it.
Despite this epiphany, Mussorgsky's music leaned more toward foreign models; a four-hand piano sonata that he produced in 1860 contains his only movement insonata form. Nor is any 'nationalistic' impulse easily discernible in the incidental music forVladislav Ozerov's playOedipus in Athens, on which he worked between the ages of 19 and 22 (and then abandoned unfinished), or in theIntermezzo in Modo Classico for piano solo (revised and orchestrated in 1867). The latter was the only important piece he composed between December 1860 and August 1863: the reasons for this probably lie in the painful re-emergence of his subjective crisis in 1860 and the purely objective difficulties which resulted from theemancipation of the serfs the following year – as a result of which the family was deprived of half its estate, and Mussorgsky had to spend a good deal of time in Karevo unsuccessfully attempting to stave off their looming impoverishment.
By this time, Mussorgsky had freed himself from the influence of Balakirev and was largely teaching himself. In 1863 he began an opera –Salammbô – on which he worked between 1863 and 1866 before losing interest in the project. During this period, he returned to Saint Petersburg and supported himself as a low-grade civil servant while living in a six-man "commune". In a heady artistic and intellectual atmosphere, he read and discussed a wide range of modern artistic and scientific ideas – including those of the provocative writerChernyshevsky, known for the bold assertion that, in art, "form and content are opposites". Under such influences he came more and more to embrace the idea of artistic realism and all that it entailed, whether this concerned the responsibility to depict life "as it is truly lived"; the preoccupation with the lower strata of society; or the rejection of repeating, symmetrical musical forms as insufficiently true to the unrepeating, unpredictable course of "real life".
"Real life" affected Mussorgsky painfully in 1865 when his mother died; at this point, the composer had his first serious bout of alcoholism, which forced him to leave the commune to stay with his brother. However, the 26-year-old was on the point of writing his first realistic songs (including "Hopak" and "Darling Savishna", both of them composed in 1866 and among his first "real" publications the following year). The year 1867 was also the one in which he finished the original orchestral version of hisNight on Bald Mountain (which, Balakirev criticised and refused to conduct,[33] with the result that it was never performed during Mussorgsky's lifetime[34]).
Mussorgsky's career as a civil servant was by no means stable or secure: though he was assigned to various posts and even received a promotion in these early years, Mussorgsky was declared "supernumerary" in 1867 – remaining "in service" but receiving no wages. However, decisive developments were occurring in his artistic life. Although it was in 1867 that Stasov first referred to the "kuchka" (Russian:кучка, lit.bunch, English: "The Five") of Russian composers loosely grouped around Balakirev, Mussorgsky was by then ceasing to seek Balakirev's approval and was moving closer to the olderAlexander Dargomyzhsky. InsideThe Five and its close companions, Mussorgsky was nicknamed as "Humour", Balakirev was "Power", and Rimsky-Korsakov was "Sincerity".[35]
Since 1866, Dargomyzhsky had been working on his operaThe Stone Guest, a version of theDon Juan story with aPushkin text that he declared would be set "just as it stands, so that the inner truth of the text should not be distorted", and in a manner that abolished the "unrealistic" division betweenaria andrecitative in favor of a continuous mode of syllabic but lyrically heightened declamation somewhere between the two.
Fyodor Komissarzhevsky as The Pretender inBoris Godunov
Under the influence of this work (and the ideas ofGeorg Gottfried Gervinus, according to whom "the highest natural object of musical imitation is emotion, and the method of imitating emotion is to mimic speech"), Mussorgsky in 1868 rapidly set the first eleven scenes ofNikolai Gogol's playMarriage (Zhenitba), with his priority being to render into music the natural accents and patterns of the play's naturalistic and deliberately humdrum dialogue. This work marked an extreme position in Mussorgsky's pursuit of naturalistic word-setting: he abandoned it unorchestrated after reaching the end of his "Act 1", and though its characteristically "Mussorgskyian" declamation is to be heard in all his later vocal music, the naturalistic mode of vocal writing more and more became merely one expressive element among many.
A few months after abandoningZhenitba, the 29-year-old Mussorgsky was encouraged to write an opera on the story ofBoris Godunov. This he did, assembling and shaping a text from Pushkin's play andKaramzin's history. Mussorgsky completed the large-scale score the following year while living with friends and working for the Forestry Department. However, the finished opera was rejected for theatrical performance in 1871, apparently because of its lack of any "prima donna" role. Mussorgsky set to work producing a revised and enlarged "second version". During the next year, which he spent sharing rooms with Rimsky-Korsakov, he made changes that went beyond those requested by the theatre. In this version the opera was accepted, probably in May 1872, and three excerpts were staged at theMariinsky Theatre in 1873. It is often asserted that in 1872 the opera was rejected a second time, but no specific evidence for this exists.
By the time of the first production ofBoris Godunov in February 1874, Mussorgsky had taken part in the ill-fatedMlada project (in the course of which he had made a choral version of hisNight on Bald Mountain) and had begunKhovanshchina. Though far from being a critical success – and in spite of receiving only a dozen or so performances – the popular reaction in favour ofBoris made this the peak of Mussorgsky's career.
From this peak, a pattern of decline became increasingly apparent. At this point, the Balakirev circle was disintegrating, something Mussorgsky was especially bitter about. He wrote toVladimir Stasov, "[T]he Mighty Handful has degenerated into soulless traitors."[36] In drifting away from his old friends, Mussorgsky had been seen to fall victim to "fits of madness" that could well have been alcoholism-related. His friendViktor Hartmann had died, and Mussorgsky's relative and recent roommateArseny Golenishchev-Kutuzov (who furnished the poems for the song-cycleSunless and would go on to provide those for theSongs and Dances of Death) had moved away to get married. Mussorgsky engaged a new and prominent personal private physician about 1870, Dr. George Leon Carrick, sometime Secretary and later President of the St. Petersburg Physicians' Society[37] and a cousin ofSir Harry Lauder.[38]
Ilya Repin's celebrated portrait of Mussorgsky, painted 2–5 March 1881, only a few days before the composer's death
While Mussorgsky suffered personally from alcoholism, it was also a behavior pattern considered typical for those of Mussorgsky's generation who wanted to oppose the establishment and protest through extreme forms of behavior.[39] One contemporary noted, "an intense worship ofBacchus was considered to be almost obligatory for a writer of that period. It was a showing off, a 'pose,' for the best people of the [eighteen-]sixties." Another writes, "Talented people in Russia who love the simple folk cannot but drink."[40] Mussorgsky spent day and night in a Saint Petersburg tavern of low repute, the Maly Yaroslavets, accompanied by other bohemian dropouts. He and his fellow drinkers idealized their alcoholism, perhaps seeing it as ethical and aesthetic opposition.[39]
For a time, Mussorgsky was able to maintain his creative output: his compositions from 1874 includeSunless, theKhovanshchina Prelude, and the piano suitePictures at an Exhibition (in memory of Hartmann); Mussorgsky also began working on another opera based on Gogol,The Fair at Sorochyntsi (for which he produced another choral version ofNight on Bald Mountain).
In the years that followed, Mussorgsky's decline became increasingly steep. Although now part of a new circle of eminent personages that included singers, medical men, and actors, he was increasingly unable to resist drinking, and a succession of deaths among his closest associates caused him great pain. However, Mussorgsky's alcoholism would seem to be in check at times, and among the most powerful works composed during his last six years are the fourSongs and Dances of Death. Mussorgsky's civil service career was made more precarious by his frequent "illnesses" and absences, and Mussorgsky was fortunate to obtain a transfer to a post (in the Office of Government Control), where his music-loving superior treated him with great leniency – even allowing Mussorgsky to spend three months touring 12 cities as a singer's accompanist in 1879.[citation needed]
However, the decline could not be halted. In 1880, Mussorgsky was finally dismissed from government service. Aware of his destitution, one group of friends organized a stipend designed to support the completion ofKhovanshchina while another group organized a similar fund to pay him to completeThe Fair at Sorochyntsi, but neither work was completed (althoughKhovanshchina, in piano score with only two numbers uncomposed, came close to being finished).
In early 1881, a desperate Mussorgsky declared to a friend that there was "nothing left but begging" and suffered fourseizures in rapid succession. Mussorgsky also suffered fromdelirium tremens during this period.[41] Although he found a comfortable room in a good hospital—and for several weeks even appeared to be rallying—the situation was hopeless. In March 1881,Ilya Repin painted the famous, red-nosed portrait in what were to be the last days of the composer's life as Mussorgsky died a week after his 42nd birthday. Mussorgsky was interred at theTikhvin Cemetery of theAlexander Nevsky Monastery inSaint Petersburg.[42]
Mussorgsky, like others of "The Five", was perceived as an extremist by the emperor and much of his court.[e] This may have been the reasonTsarAlexander III personally crossed offBoris Godunov from the list of proposed pieces for the Imperial Opera in 1888.[44]
Mussorgsky's works, while strikingly novel, are stylisticallyRomantic and draw heavily on Russian musical themes. He has been the inspiration for many Russian composers, including most notablyDmitri Shostakovich (in his late symphonies) andSergei Prokofiev (in his operas).
In 1868 or 1869, Mussorgsky composed the operaBoris Godunov, about the life of the Russiantsar, but it was rejected by theMariinsky Opera. Mussorgsky thus edited the work, making a final version in 1874. The early version is considered darker and more concise than the later version, but also more crude.Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov re-orchestrated the opera in 1896 and revised it in 1908. The opera has also been revised by other composers, notably Shostakovich, who made two versions, one for film and one for stage.
The operaKhovanshchina was unfinished and unperformed when Mussorgsky died, but it was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov and received its premiere in 1886 inSaint Petersburg. This opera was also revised by Shostakovich.The Fair at Sorochyntsi, another opera, was left incomplete at his death but a dance excerpt, theGopak, is frequently performed.
Mussorgsky's most imaginative and frequently performed work is the cycle of piano pieces describing paintings in sound calledPictures at an Exhibition. This composition, best known through an orchestral arrangement byMaurice Ravel, was written in commemoration of his friend, the architectViktor Hartmann.
Contemporary opinions of Mussorgsky as a composer and person varied from positive to ambiguous to negative. Mussorgsky's eventual supporters,Vladimir Stasov andMily Balakirev, initially registered strongly negative impressions of the composer. Stasov wrote to Balakirev, in an 1863 letter, "I have no use for Mussorgsky. His views may tally with mine, but I have never heard him express an intelligent idea. All in him is flabby, dull. He is, it seems to me, a thorough idiot", and Balakirev agreed: "Yes, Mussorgsky is little short of an idiot."[47]
Mixed impressions are recorded byRimsky-Korsakov andTchaikovsky, colleagues of Mussorgsky who, unlike him, made their living as composers. Both praised his talent while expressing disappointment with his technique. Rimsky-Korsakov wrote that Mussorgsky's scores included:
absurd, disconnected harmony, uglypart-writing, sometimes strikingly illogicalmodulation, sometimes a depressing lack of it, unsuccessfulscoring of orchestral things... what was needed at the moment was an edition for performance, for practical artistic aims, for familiarization with his enormous talent, not for the study of his personality and artistic transgressions.[48]
While preparing an edition ofSorochintsï Fair,Anatoly Lyadov remarked: "It is easy enough to correct Mussorgsky's irregularities. The only trouble is that when this is done, the character and originality of the music are done away with, and the composer's individuality vanishes."[49]
Tchaikovsky, in a letter to his patronessNadezhda von Meck, was also critical of Mussorgsky:
Mussorgsky you very rightly call a hopeless case. In talent he is perhaps superior to all the [other members ofThe Five], but his nature is narrow-minded, devoid of any urge towards self-perfection, blindly believing in the ridiculous theories of his circle and in his own genius. In addition, he has a certain base side to his nature which likes coarseness, uncouthness, roughness. He flaunts his illiteracy, takes pride in his ignorance, mucks along anyhow, blindly believing in the infallibility of his genius. Yet he has flashes of talent which are, moreover, not devoid of originality.[50]
Western perceptions of Mussorgsky changed with the European premiere ofBoris Godunov in 1908. Before the premiere, he was regarded as an eccentric in the West. CriticEdward Dannreuther, wrote, in the 1905 edition ofThe Oxford History of Music, "Mussorgsky, in his vocal efforts, appears wilfully eccentric. His style impresses the Western ear as barbarously ugly."[51] However, after the premiere, views on Mussorgsky's music changed drastically.Gerald Abraham, a musicologist, and an authority on Mussorgsky: "As a musical translator of words and all that can be expressed in words, of psychological states, and even physical movement, he is unsurpassed; as an absolute musician he was hopelessly limited, with remarkably little ability to construct pure music or even a purely musical texture."[52]
^In his day, the name was written Модестъ Петровичъ Мусоргскій.
^The BGN/PCGNtransliteration of Russian is used for his name here. ALA-LC system:Modest Petrovich Musorgskiĭ. ISO 9:Modest Petrovič Musorgskij.[1]
^Modest Mussorgsky's father Peter was eventually adopted by his biological father Alexei, Mussorgsky's grandfather, after the official marriage of Alexei and his domestic serf Irina following her emancipation (it was long time before theEmancipation reform of 1861). Irina was an unordinary woman, the best dancer-singer in the estate. Her strong character had promoted her to a 'manager of all keys' position and status of the estate owner's legitimate wife. Unfortunately, Peter's original illegitimate status (his date of birth is lost, legitimized 9 May 1820, died in 1854[19]) was considered a disgrace which had prevented him from making a successful military career according to the Mussorgsky family tradition.[20]
^Under [the rule of] Alexander II the dominance of theBaltic Germans remained.Mikhail Katkov's employee, the Latvian Krisjanis Valdemar, in the article "Who rules Russia: the Russians themselves or the Germans?" collected the statistics: "Among ministers – 15% are Germans, among members of the State Council – 25%, among senators – 40%, generals – 50%, governors – 60%. And since the governors run Russia, this will be the answer to the question posed. Since all the Empresses [consorts] are German, it is natural that under their protection the Germans infiltrate into the higher administration. Katkov, having read the article with amazement, did not believe in the numbers. And he told the secretary to check it. The results of the check were even more striking: there were not 40 but 63% of German senators! But Katkov published Valdemar's article, replacing only the words about Empresses with 'high officials'".[43]
^Kramer, Jonathan D. (1991).Listening to Music : The Essential Guide to the Classical Repertoire. London, United Kingdom: Random House UK Ltd (A Division of Random House Group). p. 484.ISBN978-0-413-45331-0.
^"Искренность и золотая рыбка" [Sincerity and Golden Fish](PDF).mopargolovo.ru (in Russian). Pargolovo Official Site. 29 April 2019. p. 8.Archived(PDF) from the original on 19 August 2019. Retrieved4 January 2021.
^Letter to Vladimir Stasov, 9 October 1875. As quoted in Rimsky-Korsakov (1923: pp. 154–155, footnote 24).
^Ashby, F., "The Carricks of St.Petersburg" inThe Caledonian Phalanx – Scots in Russia, Edinburgh, 1987, p. 96.
^"The Ancestry of Sir Harry Lauder" by Gregory Lauder-Frost, F.S.A. Scot., inThe Scottish Genealogist. vol. LIII, No. 2, June 2006,ISSN0300-337X, pp. 74–87, where Dr.Carrick's mother is given as the sister of Harry Lauder's grandfather, John Lauder.
^Wilson, Scott.Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Locations 34064–34065). McFarland & Company. Kindle Edition.
Calvocoressi, M. D.,Modest Mussorgsky: His Life and Works, London: Rockliff, 1956
Calvocoressi, M.D. "Mussorgsky's Youth: In the Light of the Latest Information".The Musical Quarterly 20, no. 1 (January 1934): 1–14.JSTOR738707ISSN0027-4631 (accessed 29 June 2015).(subscription required)
Juynboll, Floris. "Vladimir Rosing".The Record Collector 36, no. 3 (July, August, September 1991). pp. 194–196.
Musorgskiy, M.,M. P. Musorgskiy: Letters, Gordeyeva, Ye. (editor), 2nd edition, Moscow: Music (publisher), 1984 [Мусоргский, М.П.,М.П. Мусоргский: Письма, Гордеева, Е., Москва: Музыка, 1984]
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolay.My Musical Life, edited by Nadezhda Nikolaevna Rimskaia-Korsakova, translated from the second Russian edition byJudah A. Joffe and edited with an introduction byCarl Van Vechten. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1923.
Smirnitsky, A.,Russian-English Dictionary, Moscow: The Russian Language (publisher), 1985 [Смирницкий, А.И.,Русско-английский словарь, Москва: Русский язык, 1985].
Taruskin, R.,Musorgsky: Eight Essays and an Epilogue, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1993.
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