Modern republicanism is a contemporarypolitical ideology centered oncitizenship in astate organized as a modernrepublic. During theAge of Enlightenment, anti-monarchism extended beyond the civic humanism of theRenaissance.Classical republicanism, still supported by philosophers such asRousseau andMontesquieu, was only one of several theories seeking to limit the power of monarchies rather than directly opposing them.Liberalism andsocialism departed from classical republicanism and fueled the development of the more modernrepublicanism.
Republicanism helped inspire movements for independence in former Spanish colonies in the Americas in the early 19th century,[2] and republican ideals and political designs were influential in the new Spanish American republics.[3] Hispanic American republicans drew inspiration from classic and enlightenment traditions, as well as from developments in France and the United States. The role of republicanism in Spanish-speaking Latin America has attracted renewed interest from scholars. During the middle of the 19th century, many Spanish Americans saw their experiments in republicanism as placing the region on the "vanguard" of political developments, according to historian James Sanders.[4]
Many key political figures in the region identified as republicans, including Simón Bolívar, José María Samper, Francisco Bilbao, and Juan Egaña. Several of these figures produced essays, pamphlets, and collections of speeches that drew upon and adapted the broader tradition of republican political thought. Republicanism informed the development of key political institutions in the region, including ideals of citizenship and the creation of civilian militias. Republicanism often enjoyed broad public support.[5] Shared republicanism also shaped the region's diplomatic traditions, especially the focus on regional confederation, international law, sovereign equality, and ideals of an inclusive international society. Diplomats and international jurists in Latin America, such asAndrés Bello, shaped a tradition of "republican internationalism" that connected domestic republican ideals and practices with the region's emerging place in international society.[6]
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Brazilian historiography generally identifies republican thought with the movement that was formally organized in theEmpire of Brazil during the 1870s to 1880s, but republicanism was already present in the country since theFirst Reign (1822–1831) and theregency period (1831–1840). During Brazil's early years after itsindependence, the country saw the emergence of a republican discourse among the writings of figures such asCipriano Barata,Frei Caneca, and João Soares Lisboa; republican ideology better developed as a political current after the emergence of the radical liberal faction in the crisis of the final years of the First Reign.[7]
During the First Reign, three groups emerged on the country's political scene: the moderate liberals, the radical liberals and thecaramurus. The moderates defended political-institutional reforms such as decentralization, without, however, giving up the monarchical system. Their main doctrinal references were Locke, Montesquieu,Guizot andBenjamin Constant. The radicals, in turn, formed a heterogeneous group with almost no representation within the imperial bureaucracy. They were on the left of the political spectrum, along Jacobin lines, and defended broad reforms such as the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic, federalism, the extinction of theModerating Power, the end of life tenure in theSenate, the separation between Church and State, relative social equality, the extension of political and civil rights to all free segments of society, including women, the staunch opposition toslavery, displaying anationalist, xenophobic andanti-Portuguese discourse.[7]
In 1870 a group of radical liberals, convinced of the impossibility of achieving their desired reforms within the Brazilian monarchical system, met and founded the Republican Party. From its founding until 1889, the party operated in an erratic and geographically diverse manner. The republican movement was strongest in theCourt and inSão Paulo, but other smaller foci also emerged inMinas Gerais,Pará,Pernambuco andRio Grande do Sul. Only in São Paulo, however, did the movement become a true organized and disciplined party capable of electoral competition.[8] Until Brazil's transition from monarchy to republic at the end of the 19th century, the question of form of government often produced disputes in regional diplomacy and in calls for international conferences.[6]
Dissatisfaction with British rule led to a longer period of agitation in the early 19th century and failed republican revolutions inCanada in the late 1830s andIreland in 1848. This led to theTreason Felony Act in 1848 which made it illegal to advocate for republicanism. Another "significant incarnation" of republicanism broke out in the late 19th century whenQueen Victoria went into mourning and largely disappeared from public view after the death of her husband,Prince Albert. This led to questions about whether or not the institution should continue, with politicians speaking in support of abolition. This ended when Victoria returned to public duties later in the century and regained significant public support. In the early 21st century,increasing dissatisfaction with theHouse of Windsor, especially after thedeath of Elizabeth II in 2022, has led to public support for the monarchy reaching historical lows.[citation needed]
In some countries of theBritish Empire, later theCommonwealth of Nations, republicanism has taken a variety of forms.
InAustralia, the debate between republicans and monarchists is still active, and republicanism draws support from across the political spectrum. Former prime ministerMalcolm Turnbull was a leading proponent of an Australian republic prior to joining the centre-rightLiberal Party, and led the pro-republic campaign during the failed1999 Australian republic referendum. After becoming prime minister in 2015, he confirmed he still supports a republic, but stated that the issue should wait until after the reign of Queen Elizabeth II.[9] The centre-leftLabor Party officially supports the abolition of the monarchy and another referendum on the issue.
InBarbados, the government gave the promise of a referendum on becoming a republic in August 2008, but it was postponed due to the change of government in the 2008 election. A plan to becoming a republic was still in place in September 2020, according to the current PM, with a target date of late 2021.[10]
On 22 March 2015, Prime MinisterFreundel Stuart announced that Barbados will move towards a republican form of government "in the very near future". His government was defeated in the next election. In September 2020, the government of Prime MinisterMia Mottley announced that Barbados intended to become a republic by 30 November 2021, the 55th anniversary of its independence. The plan would require a two-thirds majority vote in both houses of Parliament.[11]
On 12 October 2021, incumbent Governor-General of Barbados DameSandra Mason was jointly nominated by the prime minister and leader of the opposition as candidate for the first president of Barbados,[12] and was subsequentlyelected on 20 October.[13] Mason took office on 30 November 2021.[14]
TheBelize Progressive Party supports republicanism and in the pastthe Belizean Nationalist Movement did too in the 1930s–1950s.
Canadian republicans call for thereplacement of theCanadian system offederalconstitutional monarchy with arepublican form of government. These beliefs are expressed either individually—usually in academic circles—or through the country's one republican lobby group: theCitizens for a Canadian Republic. Debate between monarchists and republicans inCanada has been taking place since beforethe country's confederation in 1867, though it has rarely been of significance since therebellions of 1837.[15] Open support for republicanism only came from thePatriotes in the early 19th century, theRed River Métis in 1869, and minor actions by theFenians throughout the 19th century. However, paralleling the changes in constitutional law that saw the creation of a distinctCanadian monarchy, the emergence in the 1960s ofQuebec nationalism, and the evolution ofCanadian nationalism, the cultural role and relevance of the monarchy altered and was sometimes questioned in certain circles, while continuing to receive support in others.
The successful1965 and1970Gambianreferendums replacedQueen Elizabeth II as the head of state in favour of a republic.
TheGrenada United Labour Party advocatesGrenada becoming a republic.
Irish republicanism is the political movement for theunity andindependence ofIreland under arepublic. Irish republicans viewBritish rule in any part of Ireland as inherently illegitimate.
Andrew Holness, the currentPrime Minister of Jamaica, has announced that his government intends to begin the process of transitioning to a republic.
New Zealand republicanism dates back to the 19th century, although until the late 20th century it was a fringe movement. The current main republican lobby group,New Zealand Republic, was established in 1994. BecauseNew Zealand's constitution is uncodified, a republic could be enacted bystatute, as a simpleact of parliament.[16] However, it is generally assumed that this would only occur following a nationwidereferendum.[17] Severalprime ministers andgovernors-general have identified themselves as republicans, although no government has yet taken any meaningful steps towards enacting a republic. Public opinion polls have generally found that a majority of the population favour retaining the monarchy.
ThePakistani Republican Party supported theConstitution of Pakistan of 1956. Other republican parties inPakistan are theBalochistan-basedBaloch Republican Party and theJamhoori Wattan Party. Prominent Pakistani republicans include:Akbar Bugti,Talal Akbar Bugti,Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan,Abdur Rashid Khan,Iskander Mirza,Muzaffar Ali Khan Qizilbash andFeroz Khan Noon.
In theSaint Vincent and the Grenadines, the failed2009 Vincentian constitutional referendum was in favour of abolishing the monarchy. Currently republicanism is supported by theUnity Labour Party, including its leaderRalph Gonsalves, theprime minister,[18] theDemocratic Republican Party,The SVG Party,United Progressive Party.
InSouth Africa, republicanism in the 1960s was identified with the supporters ofapartheid, who resented British interference in their treatment of the country's black population.[citation needed]
Both the1986 Tuvaluan constitutional referendum and the2008 Tuvaluan constitutional referendum had republican options, though both referendums' results came out in favour of keeping the monarchy.
Republicanism inBelgium can be dated back to theCommittee of United Belgians and Liégeois, a political committee inRevolutionary France which brought together leaders of the failedBrabant andLiège Revolutions (1789–1791) who sought to create an independentBelgian republic. They sought to create an independent republic inBelgium. TheRepublican Socialist Party founded 1887 was republican in nature and based mainly in theWallonia-Hainaut areas.[19][20][21]
The main nationwide movement representing republican interests isRepublican Circle; however, republican ideas can be mainly found among proponents of thepartition of Belgium intoFlanders andWallonia. Within theFlemish movement, thedeclaration of independence of thecounty of Flanders on 4 January 1790, during theBrabantine Revolution was based on republican ideals. The Flemish nationalist-separatistVlaams Belang support a republic. Within theWalloon Movement, theRattachist movement is particularly republican, represented by theFrench National-Collectivist Party,Rassemblement Wallonie France and theregionalistWalloon Rally.
The French version of republicanism after 1870 was called "Radicalism"; it became theRadical Party, a major political party. In Western Europe, there were similar smaller "radical" parties. They all supported a constitutional republic anduniversal suffrage, while Europeanliberals were at the time in favor ofconstitutional monarchy andcensus suffrage. Most radical parties later favoredeconomic liberalism andcapitalism. This distinction between radicalism and liberalism had not totally disappeared in the 20th century, although many radicals simply joined liberal parties. For example, theRadical Party of the Left in France or the (originally Italian)Transnational Radical Party, which still exist, focus more on republicanism than on simple liberalism.
Liberalism was represented in France by theOrleanists who rallied to theThird Republic only in the late 19th century, after thecomte de Chambord's 1883 death and the 1891 papal encyclicalRerum novarum. The earlyRepublican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party in France, andChartism in Britain, were closer to republicanism. Radicalism remained close to republicanism in the 20th century, at least in France, where they governed several times with other parties (participating in both theCartel des Gauches coalitions as well as thePopular Front).
Discredited after theSecond World War, French radicals split into a left-wing party – theRadical Party of the Left, an associate of theSocialist Party – and theRadical Party "valoisien", an associate party of the conservativeUnion for a Popular Movement (UMP) and itsGaullist predecessors. Italian radicals also maintained close links with republicanism, as well as withsocialism, with thePartito radicale founded in 1955, which became theTransnational Radical Party in 1989.
Increasingly, after the fall of Communism in 1989 and the collapse of the Marxist interpretation of the French Revolution, France increasingly turned to republicanism to define its national identity.[22]Charles de Gaulle, presenting himself as the military savior of France in the 1940s, and the political savior in the 1950s, refashioned the meaning of republicanism. Both left and right enshrined him in the Republican pantheon.[23]
In thehistory of Italy, there are several republican governments that have followed one another over time. Examples are the ancientRoman Republic and the medievalmaritime republics. FromCicero toNiccolò Machiavelli, Italian philosophers have imagined the foundations of political science and republicanism.[24] It wasGiuseppe Mazzini who revived the republican idea in Italy in the 19th century.[25] AnItalian nationalist in thehistorical radical tradition and a proponent of arepublicanism ofsocial-democratic inspiration, Mazzini helped define the modern European movement forpopular democracy in a republican state.[26] Mazzini's thoughts had a very considerable influence on the Italian and European republican movements, in theConstitution of Italy, aboutEuropeanism and more nuanced on many politicians of a later period, among them American presidentWoodrow Wilson, British prime ministerDavid Lloyd George,Mahatma Gandhi, Israeli prime ministerGolda Meir and Indian prime ministerJawaharlal Nehru.[1] Mazzini formulated a concept known as "thought and action" in which thought and action must be joined together and every thought must be followed by action, therefore rejectingintellectualism and the notion of divorcing theory from practice.[27]
In July 1831, in exile inMarseille, Giuseppe Mazzini founded theYoung Italy movement, which aimed to transform Italy into a unitary democratic republic, according to the principles of freedom, independence and unity, but also to oust the monarchic regimes pre-existing the unification, including theKingdom of Sardinia. The foundation of the Young Italy constitutes a key moment of the ItalianRisorgimento. The philosopherCarlo Cattaneo promoted a secular and republican Italy in the extension of Mazzini's ideas, but organized as afederal republic.[28] The political projects of Mazzini and Cattaneo were thwarted by the action of the Piedmontese Prime MinisterCamillo Benso, Count of Cavour, andGiuseppe Garibaldi. The latter set aside his republican ideas to favor Italian unity.[29] After having obtained the conquest of the whole ofsouthern Italy during theExpedition of the Thousand, Garibaldi handed over the conquered territories to the king of SardiniaVictor Emmanuel II, which were annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia after a plebiscite. This earned him heavy criticism from numerous republicans who accused him of treason.[30] While a laborious administrative unification began, afirst Italian parliament was elected and, on 17 March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II wasproclaimed king of Italy.[31]
In the political panorama of the time there was a republican political movement which had its martyrs, such as the soldierPietro Barsanti.[32] Barsanti was a supporter of republican ideas, and was a soldier in theRoyal Italian Army with the rank of corporal. He was sentenced to death and shot in 1870 for having favored an insurrectional attempt against theSavoy monarchy and is therefore considered the first martyr of the modernItalian Republic.[32][33] and a symbol of republican ideals in Italy.[34] The Republicans took part in the elections to the Italian Parliament, and in 1853 they formed theAction Party aroundGiuseppe Mazzini. Although in exile, Mazzini was elected in 1866, but refused to take his seat in parliament. Cattaneo was elected deputy in 1860 and 1867, but refused so as not to have to swear loyalty to theHouse of Savoy. The problem of the oath of loyalty to the monarchy, necessary to be elected, was the subject of controversy within the republican forces. In 1873,Felice Cavallotti, one of the most committed Italian politicians against the monarchy, preceded his oath with a declaration in which he reaffirmed his republican beliefs.[35]
In October 1922, the nomination ofBenito Mussolini as prime minister by KingVictor Emmanuel III, following themarch on Rome, paved the way for the establishment of the dictatorship. With the implementation of fascist laws (Royal Decree of 6 November 1926), all political parties operating on Italian territory were dissolved, with the exception of theNational Fascist Party. TheKingdom of Italy enteredWorld War II on 10 June 1940. Hostilities ended on 29 April 1945,when the German forces in Italy surrendered. The aftermath of World War II left Italy also with an anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of theFascist regime for the previous twenty years. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement.[36] Italy became a republic after the1946 Italian institutional referendum[37] held on 2 June, a day celebrated since asFesta della Repubblica. It was the first time that the wholeItalian Peninsula was under a form of republican governance since the end of the ancientRoman Republic.
TheItalian Republican Party (Italian:Partito Repubblicano Italiano, PRI) is apolitical party in Italy established in 1895, which makes it the oldest political party still active in the country. The Italian Republican Party identifies with 19th-centuryclassical radicalism,[38] as well asMazzinianism,[39][40] and its modern incarnation is associated withliberalism,[41][42][43]social liberalism,[44] andcentrism.[45] The Italian Republican Party has old roots and a long history that began with aleft-wing position,[46] being the heir of theHistorical Far Left and claiming descent from the political thought ofGiuseppe Mazzini andGiuseppe Garibaldi.[47] With the rise of theItalian Communist Party and theItalian Socialist Party (PSI) to its left, it was associated withcentre-left politics.[48][49] The early Italian Republican Party was also known for itsanti-clerical,anti-monarchist,republican, and lateranti-fascist stances.[50] While maintaining those traits, during the second half of the 20th century the party moved towards the centre on theleft–right political spectrum, becoming increasinglyeconomically liberal.[51]
After 1949, the Italian Republican Party was a member of the pro-NATO alliance formed byChristian Democracy (DC), theItalian Democratic Socialist Party, and theItalian Liberal Party (PLI), enabling it to participate in most governments of the 1950s, a period later known asCentrism. In 1963, the party helped bring together DC and PSI in Italy's first centre-left government, theOrganic centre-left. Although small in terms of voter support, the Italian Republican Party was influential thanks to leaders likeEugenio Chiesa,Giovanni Conti,Cipriano Facchinetti,Randolfo Pacciardi,Oronzo Reale,Ugo La Malfa,Bruno Visentini,Oddo Biasini andGiovanni Spadolini.[52] The latter served asPrime Minister of Italy in 1981–1982, the first non Christian Democrat since 1945. From 1976 to 2010, the Italian Republican Party was a member of theEuropean Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (ELDR), along with the PLI, and the two parties usually ran together in European Parliament elections. After joining the centristSegni Pact in 1994, the Italian Republican Party was part of thecentre-left coalition from 1996 to 2006, and then of thecentre-right coalition from 2008 to 2013 (its leaderGiorgio La Malfa was minister in 2005–2006). Afterwards, it ran alone until joining the centristAction – Italia Viva in 2022.
In the1919 Luxembourg referendum a republic form of statehood was overwhelmingly rejected.
The Netherlands have known two republican periods: theDutch Republic (1581–1795) that gained independence from theSpanish Empire during theEighty Years' War, followed by theBatavian Republic (1795–1806) that after conquest by theFrench First Republic had been established as aSister Republic. AfterNapoleoncrowned himself Emperor of the French, he made his brotherLouis BonaparteKing of Holland (1806–1810), then annexed the Netherlands into theFrench First Empire (1810–1813) until he was defeated at theBattle of Leipzig. Thereafter theSovereign Principality of the United Netherlands (1813–1815) was established, granting theOrange-Nassau family, who during the Dutch Republic had only beenstadtholders, a princely title over the Netherlands, and soonWilliam Frederick even crowned himself King of the Netherlands. His rather autocratic tendencies in spite of the principles of constitutional monarchy met increasing resistance from Parliament and the population, which eventually limited the monarchy's power and democratised the government, most notably through theConstitutional Reform of 1848. Since the late 19th century, republicanism has had various degrees of support in society, which the royal house generally dealt with by gradually letting go of its formal influence in politics and taking on a more ceremonial and symbolic role. Nowadays, popularity of the monarchy is high, but there is a significant republican minority that strives to abolish the monarchy altogether.
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There has existed in Spain a persistent trend of republican thought, especially throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, that has manifested itself in diverse political parties and movements over the entire course of thehistory of Spain. While these movements have shared the objective of establishing a republic, during these three centuries there have surged distinct schools of thought on the form republicans would want to give to the SpanishState:unitary orfederal. The roots of Spanish republicanism arose out of liberal thought in the wake of theFrench Revolution. The first manifestations of republicanism occurred during thePeninsular War, in which Spain and nearby regions fought for independence fromNapoleon, 1808–1814. During the reign ofFerdinand VII (1813–1833) there were several liberalist militarypronunciamientos, but it was not until the reign ofIsabella II (1833–1868) that the first clearly republican and anti-monarchist movements appeared.
There is a renewed interest in republicanism inSpain after two earlier attempts: theFirst Spanish Republic (1873–1874) and theSecond Spanish Republic (1931–1939). Movements such asCiudadanos Por la República [es], Citizens for the Republic inSpanish, have emerged, and parties likeUnited Left and theRepublican Left of Catalonia increasingly refer to republicanism. In a survey conducted in 2007 reported that 69% of the population prefer the monarchy to continue, compared with 22% opting for a republic.[53] In a 2008 survey, 58% of Spanish citizens were indifferent, 16% favored a republic, 16% were monarchists, and 7% claimed they wereJuancarlistas (supporters of continued monarchy under KingJuan Carlos I, without a common position for the fate of the monarchy after his death).[54] In recent years, there has been a tie between Monarchists and Republicans.[55][56]
TheFaroese independence movement has a strong republican element, most notably represented by theRepublic Party.
The overwhelmingly passed1944 Icelandic constitutional referendum effectively abolished the monarchy in favour of a republic.[57] The 1 December 1918Danish–Icelandic Act of Union had granted Iceland independence fromDenmark, but maintained the two countries in apersonal union, with the King of Denmark also being the King of Iceland. In the two-part referendum, voters were asked whether theUnion with Denmark should be abolished, and whether to adopt a newrepublican constitution. Both measures were approved, each with more than 98% in favour. Voter turnout was 98.4% overall,[58] and 100% in two constituencies, Seyðisfirði and Vestur-Skaftafjellssýsla.[59]
In the period around and after thedissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905, an opposition to the monarchy grew in Norway, and republican movements and thoughts continue to exist to this day.[60] Currently, the Norwegian Republican Association (Norge som republikk) is the only non-partisan organisation campaigning to abolish the monarchy and make Norway a republic.[61] In 2024, the crown prince’s stepson,Marius Borg Høiby was arrested on suspicion ofrape and is facing trial.[62] From 20 November 2024, Høiby was aremand prisoner atHamar Prison.[63][64][65] As of 21 November Høiby is accused of raping three women.[66] The Høiby affair, along with scandals involving the King's son-in-law, conspiracy theorist, convicted felon and accused sex offenderDurek Verrett, have been cited as reasons for a "decimation of the Norwegian royal family's reputation,"[67] leading to debate about democratic constitutional reforms to abolish hereditary positions[68][69] and a doubling of membership in theNorwegian republican association.[70][71]
In Sweden, a major promoter of republicanism is theSwedish Republican Association, which advocates for a democratic ending to theMonarchy of Sweden.[72] A large part of the arguments for proclaiming a Swedish Republic are based on an ideological rejection of themonarchy, not necessarily on rejecting the individuals who actually exercise kingship. The effort towards a republic has been included in the earlyparty platforms of theSocial Democratic Party, theLeft Party and theGreen Party.[73][74][75] The Social Democratic Party had stated its intention to establish a republic in its party platform ever since its foundation in 1889. However, when it came into power in 1920, the desire had worn off. This is attributed to the pragmatism of its then leaderHjalmar Branting. In 1997, the Swedish Republican Association was founded. In 2010, the umbrellaAlliance of European Republican Movements (AERM) was founded in Stockholm, in which Swedish republicans cooperate with other European republican groups.
Anti-monarchism inJapan was a minor force during the 20th century. TheJapanese Communist Party is the most prominent advocate of a non-monarchic system and has in the past demanded the abolition of the emperor system outright.[76] In 1908, a letter allegedly written by Japanese revolutionaries denied the Emperor's divinity, and threatened his life.[77] In 1910,Kōtoku Shūsui and 10 others plotted to assassinate the Emperor.[78] In 1923, 1925 and 1932Emperor Hirohito survived assassination attempts.[79]
AfterWorld War II, the communists were antagonistic to the Emperor. TheJapanese Communist Party demanded the abolition of the emperor system.[76] They boycotted the formal opening of theNational Diet in 1949 because of Emperor Shōwa's presence.[80] The Japanese Communist Party continued to be antagonistic after Emperor Shōwa's death in 1989.[81] During the Imperial visits toOtsu, Japan in 1951, andHokkaido in 1954, Communist posters and handbills antagonistic to the Imperial Family Members were plastered in the cities.[82][83] In 1951, three thousand students inKyoto University protested against Emperor Shōwa's continued reign.[84]
In 1923 after thefall of theOttoman Empire an inherited aristocracy and sultanate suppressed republican ideas until the successful republican revolution ofMustafa Kemal Atatürk in the 1920s. Republicanism remainsone of the six principles ofKemalism. Kemalism, as it was implemented byMustafa Kemal Atatürk after thedeclaration of Republic in 1923, was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural and religious reforms designed to separate the new Turkish state from itsOttoman predecessor and embrace a Western-style modernized lifestyle,[85] including the establishment ofsecularism/laicism, state support of the sciences, free education,gender equality,economic statism and many more. Most of those policies were first introduced to and implemented in Turkey during Atatürk's presidency throughhis reforms.
Many of the root ideas of Kemalism began during the lateOttoman Empire under various reforms to avoid the imminentcollapse of the Empire, beginning chiefly in the early 19th-centuryTanzimat reforms.[86] The mid-centuryYoung Ottomans attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, orOttomanism, to quell therising ethnic nationalism in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. In the early 20th century, theYoung Turks abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of earlyTurkish nationalism, while adopting a secular political outlook. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk, influenced by both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks,[87] as well as by their successes and failures, led the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, borrowing from the earlier movements' ideas of secularism and Turkish nationalism, while implementing free education[88] and other reforms that have been enshrined by later leaders into guidelines for governing Turkey.
The values and ideals of republicanism are foundational inthe constitution andhistory of the United States.[89][90] As the United States constitution prohibits granting titles ofnobility,republicanism in this context does not refer to a political movement to abolish such asocial class, as it does in countries such as theUK,Australia, andthe Netherlands. Instead, it refers to the core values that citizenry in arepublic have,[91][92] or ought to have. Political scientists and historians have described these central values asliberty andinalienable individual rights; recognizing thesovereignty of the people as the source of all authority in law;[93] rejectingmonarchy,aristocracy, and hereditary political power; virtue and faithfulness in the performance of civic duties; and vilification ofcorruption.[94] These values are based on those of AncientGreco-Roman,Renaissance, andEnglish models and ideas.[95]
Republicanism became the dominant political value of Americans during and after theAmerican Revolution. TheFounding Fathers were strong advocates of republican values, especiallyThomas Jefferson,Samuel Adams,Patrick Henry,Thomas Paine,Benjamin Franklin,John Adams,James Madison andAlexander Hamilton.[96] In 1854, social movements started to harness values ofabolitionism and free labour.[97] These burgeoning radical traditions in America became epitomized in the early formation of theRepublican Party, known as "red republicanism".[98] The efforts were primarily led by political leaders such asAlvan E. Bovay,Thaddeus Stevens, andAbraham Lincoln.[99]
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