Modern Greek literature isliterature written inModern Greek, starting in thelate Byzantine era in the 11th century AD.[1] It includes work not only from within the borders of the modernGreek state, but also from other areas where Greek was widely spoken, includingIstanbul,Asia Minor, andAlexandria.[2]
The first period of modern Greek literature includes texts concerned with philosophy and the allegory of daily life, as well as epic songs celebrating theakritai (Acritic songs), the most famous of which isDigenes Akritas. In the late 16th and early 17th century,Crete flourished underVenetian rule and produced two of the most important Greek texts;Erofili (ca. 1595) byGeorgios Chortatzis andErotokritos (ca. 1600) byVitsentzos Kornaros.European Enlightenment had a profound effect on Greek scholars, most notablyRigas Feraios andAdamantios Korais, who paved the way for theGreek War of Independence in 1821.
After the establishment of theKingdom of Greece, intellectual output was centered in theIonian Islands, and inAthens. TheHeptanese School was represented by poets such asDionysios Solomos, who wrote thenational anthem of Greece andAristotelis Valaoritis, while theAthenian School included figures likeAlexandros Rizos Rangavis andPanagiotis Soutsos. In the 19th, theGreek language question arose, as there was an intense dispute between the users ofDemotic Greek,i.e. the language of everyday life, and those who favouredKatharevousa, a cultivated imitation ofAncient Greek.Kostis Palamas,Georgios Drossinis, andKostas Krystallis, who belonged to the so-called1880s Generation, revitalized Greek letters and helped cement Demotic Greek as the form most used in poetry. Prose also thrived, with writers likeEmmanuel Rhoides,Georgios Vizyinos,Alexandros Papadiamantis, andAndreas Karkavitsas.
The most celebrated poets of the verge of the 20th century areConstantine P. Cavafy,Angelos Sikelianos,Kostas Varnalis, andKostas Karyotakis. As of prose,Nikos Kazantzakis, is the best-known Greek novelist outside Greece.[1] Other important writers of that period areGrigorios Xenopoulos, andKonstantinos Theotokis, whilePenelope Delta is noted for her children's stories and novels. TheGeneration of the '30s first introduced modernist trends in Greek literature. It included writersStratis Myrivilis,Elias Venezis,Yiorgos Theotokas, andM. Karagatsis, and poetsGiorgos Seferis,Andreas Embirikos,Yiannis Ritsos,Nikos Engonopoulos, andOdysseas Elytis. Seferis and Elytis were awarded theNobel Prize in 1963 and 1979 respectively.
In post-war decades many significant poets were published, such asTasos Leivaditis,Manolis Anagnostakis,Titos Patrikios,Kiki Dimoula andDinos Christianopoulos.Dido Sotiriou,Stratis Tsirkas,Alki Zei,Menis Koumandareas,Costas Taktsis, andThanassis Valtinos are routinely mentioned as some of the most important post-war prose writers, whileIakovos Kambanellis has been described as the "father of post–World War II Greek theater".[3] The 1980s saw the novel take over from poetry as the most prestigious genre in Greek literature, thanks to writers such asEugenia Fakinou andRhea Galanaki. Among more recent figures who have achieved critical acclaim and/or commercial success arePetros Markaris,Chrysa Dimoulidou,Isidoros Zourgos,Christos Chomenidis, andGiannis Palavos.
There has been much discussion concerning the division of modern Greek literature into distinct eras. It has been suggested that it begins in 1453, the year of theFall of Constantinople, but most scholars now agree that its onset can be traced in the 11th century, with the epic song ofDigenes Akritas.[4][5] The contemporary high-school syllabus places its beginnings ever earlier, in the 10th century, and divides the history of modern Greek literature as follows:
Another widely accepted periodization is the following:[2]
The epic ofDigenes Akritas, the most famous of allAcritic songs, is often referred as the starting point of modern Greek literature.[6][1] This notion is justified by the fact that it is written in a form of Greek that is more familiar to modern-day speakers.[1] In fact,Digenes Akritas and other such epics, like theSong of Armouris, are the first attempts at a literary use of the spoken, common, i.e. modern Greek language.[4] They are narrations of the heroic deeds of theakritai, the guards along the Eastern edge of theByzantine Empire, and they use thepolitical verse, which was probably a major medium of expression for the illiterate and half-literate members of the Byzantine society.[7] These songs come from all parts of the then Greek-speaking world, and is argued that the oldest ones are fromCyprus,Asia Minor andPontus.[8]
During the 12th century, Byzantine writers reintroduced theancient Greek romance literature and many suchnovels were composed in the following centuries. Perhaps the most popular wasLivistros and Rodamni, written by a demotic writer in Cyprus orCrete.[9] Others areHysimine and Hysimines byEustathios Makrembolites,Rodanthe and Dosikles byTheodore Prodromos, andKallimachos and Chrysorrhoe andBelthandros and Chrysantza, both by unknown authors. Theodore Prodromos is sometimes identified as the author of the so-calledPtochoprodromic Poems, a collection of four satiric poems, written in the vernacular.[10]Michael Glykas, who was imprisoned due to his participation in a conspiracy againstManuel I Komnenos, composed a petition in political verse, titledPoetic Lines by M. Glykas Which He Wrote during the Time He Was Detained because of Some Spiteful Informer, using vernacular and classical vocabulary.[11]
Another group of early modern Greek texts is that of allegorical and didactic poems.Story of Ptocholeon is one of the earliest such poems, and has oriental origins, probablyIndian.[12]Spaneas, a poem containing moral advice for a young man, was frequently copied.[13] Amusing tales about animals must have also been popular. Examples include the poemsTale about Quadrupeds, dated to 1364,[14] about a meeting of all the animals at the invitation of their king, the lion; thePoulologos, a similar tale about birds; andThe Synaxarion of the Estimable Donkey, a 14th century fable of a donkey travelling to theHoly Land with a wolf and a fox.[10] There is also thePorikologos about fruits, written in prose as a parody of the official language of the Byzantine court.[15] In the early 14th century, the vernacular became the accepted medium for fiction of any kind.[16]
There are very few signs of intellectual activity during the first two centuries ofOttoman rule, as theByzantine scholars fled to Italy.[17] Their migration during the decline of the Byzantine Empire and mainly after its dissolution greatly contributed to the transmission and dissemination ofAncient Greek letters in western Europe, and thus in the development of theRenaissance humanism.[18] Such émigrés includedGemistos Plethon,Manuel Chrysoloras,Theodorus Gaza,Cardinal Bessarion,John Argyropoulos, andDemetrios Chalkokondyles. Therefore, from the middle 15th century to the 17th century, the most notable literary texts come from areas underFrancocracy, such asRhodes, theIonian Islands, andCrete, as well as from Greeks who were active inItaly.[19] Western literature was highly influential, both in content and in form. It is believed by many scholars that the use ofrhyme in Greek poetry, despite being sporadically present in works of previous centuries, was a result of that influence.[20][21]
Crete was aStato da Màr from 1205 until 1669.Venetian rule proved troubled from the beginning, but after the mid-16th century the change of policy towards natives and the improvement in welfare of both communities, led to a long period of peaceful coexistence and cultural crossfertilization.[22] Some scholars even talk about a shared Veneto-Cretan cultural consciousness.[23] Italian influence is apparent in these works, but there is a distinctive "Greekness" nonetheless.[24] AsDavid Holton has put it: "Crete is the placepar excellence where the meeting of the West with the Greek East took place."[25]The first important works of Cretan literature appear in the 14th and early 15th centuries.Stephanos Sahlikis, the first known Greek poet to use the couplet form consistently,[26] wrote humorous poems with autobiographical elements, such asPraise of Pothotsoutsounia,Council of the Whores andThe Remarkable Story of the Humble Sachlikis.Janus Plousiadenos'Lamentation of the Mother of God on the Passion of Christ, a religious poem, was arguably quite popular.[27] Nevertheless, perhaps the most important of these early texts, isApokopos byBergadis. It was probably written around 1400, and is the earliest known vernacular text to have passed into printed form, in 1509.[28] Composed in rhyming couplets in political verses, it is a tale of a trip toHades which pokes fun at religion and popular beliefs of that time.[29] Other known poets are Marinos Falieros, and Leonardos Dellaportas.
The heyday of Cretan Renaissance literature is placed between 1590 and theOttoman conquest of Crete in 1669.[30] The principal characteristic of this period is that almost all the works are dramas.[31] The two most prominent figures areGeorgios Chortatzis andVitsentzos Kornaros.
Georgios Chortatzis'Erofili (ca. 1595) is deemed as the finest play of Cretan theatre.[32] Written in thelocal idiom, it is a violenttragedy narrating the condemned love between Erofili, daughter of the Egyptian king Philogonos, and the youth Panaretos. BeforeErofili, Chortatzis also wroteKatzourbos, a comedy, andPanoria, an influential pastoral drama. Vitsentzos Kornaros is best-known forErotokritos (ca. 1600), which is regarded as the undoubted masterpiece of this period, and one of the greatest achievements of modern Greek literature.[33][34] It is a poem of over 10,000 rhyming 15-syllable iambic verses in the Cretan dialect, narrating the chivalrouslove of Erotokritos for the princess Aretousa and their union after long and arduous adventures of deception and intrigue.[35]Kornaros is also believed by some to be the author ofThe Sacrifice of Abraham (1635[36]), a religious drama inspired by thefamous episode of the Old Testament, considered a landmark of Cretan theatre.[37]
Other surviving plays are the comediesFortounatos (ca. 1662) by Markos Antonios Foskolos, and anonymousStathis,[a] and the dramaticKing Rodolinos (1647) by Andreas Troilos.Voskopoula (ca. 1600), a short narrative poem of unknown author, is the only non-drama text of this period, apart fromErotokritos.[31]
In the 16th and 17th centuries Ionian islands, some lyric poetry existed alongside a didactic or hagiographical prose tradition, much of which was printed inVenice.[39]CorfiotIakovos Trivolis wroteThe Story of Tagapiera, a panegyric of a Venetian admiral, andThe History of the King of Scotland and the Queen of England, a tale taken fromBoccaccio'sDecameron, or, more possibly, from one of its imitations.[40] Alexios Rartouros, also from Corfu, devised a prototype of popular preaching in hisSermons (1560).[39] In 1526,Nikolaos Loukanis, who lived in Venice, printed a paraphrase translation ofHomer'sIliad, noted for being the most lavishly illustrated edition of any vernacularGreek work.[41] Teodoro Montseleze's religious dramaEugena (editio princeps in 1646) is the only extant play from that period.[42] Other known authors are Markos Defanaras fromZakynthos, and Ioannikios Kartanos from Corfu.
Even though lyric poetry was popular in Rhodes, aterritorial entity of the Knights Hospitaller between 1310 and 1522, only a few texts have survived.[43]Erotopaignia, the most prominent of them, was written in the mid-15th century.[44] Emmanuel Georgillas or Limenitis, wroteThe Plague of Rhodes, a narrative poem about the plague that hit thecity of Rhodes in 1498.[45] To him is also attributed one of the surviving versions ofThe Tale of Belisarius, a poem relating the exploits and unjust punishment of generalBelisarius.[46]
Cyprus was also an important intellectual center, evidenced mainly by theCypriot Canzoniere, a 16th century anthology of 156 poems.[47] They are translations and imitations of poems byPetrarch,Jacopo Sannazaro,Pietro Bembo, and others. Unlike other contemporary texts, they are written in theItalian hendecasyllable and in a variety of forms familiar to the Renaissance (sonnets,octaves,terzinas,sestinas,barzelettas, etc).[48] In fact, this collection contains the first true sonnets in Greek language,[49] and is widely considered one of the highest points of Renaissance literature in Greek language.[48][50] Cyprus also had a significant tradition of prose chronicles in theCypriot dialect, the most notable were written byLeontios Machairas andGeorgios Boustronios, which together with all literary output declined after thesubjugation by the Ottomans.[51]
17th centuryChios, saw significant theatrical activity, in the form of religious plays, which in the best cases show facets of the highBaroque, andRococo.[52] Examples includeEleazar and the Seven Maccabee Boys by Michael Vestarchis,Three Boys in the Furnace by Grigorios Kontaratos andDrama of the Man Who Was Born Blind by Gabriel Prosopsas.
After 1669, many Cretans fled to the Ionian islands, thus transplanting the rich Cretan theatrical tradition there.[53] TragedyZenon, played in 1683, was written by an anonymous Cretan playwright.[54] Petros Katsaitis' tragediesIfigenia (1720) andThyestes (1721), and Savoyas Soumerlis' satiricalComedy of the Pseudo-Doctors (1745) are evidently modelled after Cretan plays,[55][56] alongside the influence from late Renaissance tragedy,commedia dell' arte, and Italian theatre in general.[54] Theatrical activity of the Aegean islands was continued in the first decades of the 18th century. Examples include the anonymusDavid, written infrankochiotika,[57] andTragedy of St. Demetrius, performed in 1723 onNaxos.[58] The most important poem of the early 18th century isFlowers of Piety (1708), a miscellany edited by boarding students at theFlanginian College in Venice.[59] Ecclesiastical rhetoric makes up a significant part of the intellectual output of the time, with the likes ofIlias Miniatis, and Frangiskos Skoufos.
Greek Enlightenment, also known asDiafotismos (Διαφωτισμός), was influenced primarily by the French and German variations, but it was also based on the rich heritage of Byzantine culture.[60] Its chronological limits can be loosely placed between 1750 and 1830, with the years 1774 to 1821 marking the zenith. In essence, the historical cycle of the Enlightenment for the Greeks ends with the outbreak of theWar of Independence, some time after the end of the European Enlightenment.[61] Essentially, Diafotismos was a string of educational initiatives, such as translation of classics, compilation of dictionaries, and establishment of schools.[62] The literary production of this era points to clear intellectual trends: a turn towards the classics and the sciences, the formation of a new moral order, and, above all, emancipation from Church authority.[63]Phanar in Istanbul became an intellectual centre of high importance, due to thePhanariots, members of the Greek elite of the Ottoman Empire, who had acquired great wealth and influence during the 17th century.[64] Phanariots were also active in theDanubian Principalities, where many of them were appointedHospodars, and theRussian Empire. So pivotal was their role, that the 18th century has been named "the century of the Phanariots."[65][66]
Paschalis Kitromilides identifies scholarsMethodios Anthrakites,Antonios Katiphoros,Vikentios Damodos, andNikolaos Mavrocordatos as the precursors of Diafotismos.[67] Mavrocordatos's novelParerga of Philotheos (1718) did not have any effect on the development of Greek letters,[b] but today it can be viewed as a forerunner of the new era of Greek literature.[68]Kaisarios Dapontes lived a turbulent life and, after becoming a monk, he wrote numerous poems, such asMirror of Women,Garden of Graces, andConcise Canon of Many Amazing Things to be Found in Many Cities, Islands, Nations and Animals.[69] His works were very popular among all walks of life, and he is today regarded as the most important poet of his age.[70]
ClergymanEvgenios Voulgaris was the first great figure of Diafotismos. His oeuvre, consisting of translations ofVoltaire, pamphlets, treatises, essays and poems, had a decisive impact on the course of the movement.[72]Iosipos Moisiodax,Christodoulos Pablekis, andDimitrios Katartzis were also significant representatives of modern Greek Enlightenment, although they did not contribute to literatureper se.
Adamantios Korais worked on political writings and translations of ancient and contemporary texts, but his central position in the history of Greek literature is due to his conception ofKatharevousa, a purified form of the Greek language.[73] He also was instrumental in the founding ofHermes o Logios, the most important periodical prior to the War of Independence.[74] His prefaces to the first four books of Homer'sIliad (known asThe Running Reverend) mark a launching pad for modern prose narrative.[75]
The ferment created by theFrench Revolution in Greek politics and social thought in the last decade of the eighteenth century found its most dramatic expression in the intellectual and political activities ofRigas Feraios.[76] Feraios translated foreign authors and wrote revolutionary texts and poems, of whichThourios is the most famous. Although his plans for an armed revolt against the Ottomans failed, he served as an inspiration for future generations and has been named the "National Bard".[77]
Cultivation of literature is detected mostly in the last quarter of the 18th century, and intensified in the years preceding the War of Independence. In 1785,Georgios N. Soutsos wroteThe Unscrupulous Voevod Alexandros, a three-act comedy in prose, with which the genre of Phanariot satire begins.[78] The 1789 untitled libel by an unknown author (notnamed "Anonymus of 1789") is considered the first manifestation of creative prose in modern Greek.[79][80] Another important text of this genre isAnglofrancorussian (1805), a satire written in verse that became a kind of manifesto for the new ideology of the Enlightenment in its most extreme version.[80] Other examples includeThe Character of Valachia (ca. 1800),The Return, or The Lantern of Diogenes (1809), andThe Comedy of the Apple of Discord (before 1820), all by unknown authors.[81]
Poetry was centered around two poles: Phanariots and those affected by the phanariot spirit; and the Heptanesians.Alexander Mavrocordatos Firaris,Dionisie Fotino,Michael Perdikaris,Georgios Sakellarios, andAthanasios Christopoulos belong to the first group, with Sakellarios and Christopoulos considered the most important. Phanariot poetry of the time covered many different themes, including romantic love, allegory and satire.[82] On the other hand, Ionians mostly wrote patriotic and satirical poems.[83]Antonios Martelaos,Thomas Danelakis, andNikolaos Koutouzis are called pre-Solomians (i.e. those precedingDionysios Solomos), and are the precursors of the flourishing of Heptanese poetry in the following years.Ioannis Vilaras, an important intellectual figure, is a distinct case, not only because his poems were published posthumously, during the War of Independence, but also because he cannot be categorized in any of the aforementioned literary groups.
In the Ionian islands treatrical performances were quite frequent, usually in the form of sketches, isolated scenes from the Cretan dramas,[84] and adaptations of foreign plays.[54] From the indigenous output,Dimitrios Gouzelis's comedyChasis (1790 or 1795)[85] is by far the most notable.
TheWar of Independence against the Ottoman Empire broke out in early 1821 and had an immediate and profound effect on Greek literature. In mainland Greece, literature was sidelined but not nullified, as men of letters tried to inject enthusiasm into the population.[86] Folk poetry, essentially songs inspired by events of the times, also proliferated.[87] Literature proper was nourished mainly in the Ionian islands, now aBritish protectorate, but maintaining strong cultural ties with Italy.
Andreas Kalvos was born in Zakynthos, but lived most of his early years abroad, many of which accompanyingUgo Foscolo as his secretary. His work in Greek consists of two collections published while living inSwitzerland andFrance,The Lyre (1824) andLyric Poems (1826). These twenty odes are celebrations of the Greek revolution, and combineNeoclassicism withRomanticism.[88] Kalvos also wrote a few poems and three tragedies in Italian, and prose texts in English.[35] His poetry was met with indifference by his contemporaries, but was rediscovered and reassessed in the late 19th century.[89]
Dionysios Solomos hailed from Zakynthos, too, and studied in Italy, where he was introduced to the ideas of the Enlightenment, Classicism and emerging Romanticism. His first poems were written in Italian, but his appearance in Greek letters coincides with the commencement of the War.[c] In 1823, Solomos composedHymn to Liberty, a poem of 158quatrains, the first two stanzas of which constitute the national anthem of Greece.[91] During that period he also wroteThe Destruction of Psara,The Free Besieged, andThe Woman of Zakynthos. Solomos is characterized by experimentalism in both language and form, having introduced into Greek a number of Western metrics (e.g.ottava rima,terza rima) that freed Greek poetry from the compulsion toward the decapentasyllabic verse.[35] His poems were written in the demotic language, showcasing that it can be used in poetry of high aesthetic quality.
Literary activity in Ionian islands was not limited to poetry.Ioannis Zambelios fromLefkada was a prolific writer, recognised for his attempts to revive Greek theatre.[92] He also wrote short stories, poems, and essays. Zakynthian noblewomanElizabeth Moutzan-Martinegou is considered the first female writer of modern Greece.[93] She translated works ofancient literature and wrote poems and plays, most of which are now lost. Today, she is best remembered for her autobiography, and has been described as the "progenitor of Greek feminist thought".[94]
Between 1830 and 1880, Romanticism was the dominant movement in Greek literature.[95] As thefirst Greek state consisted only of a small section of the present-day Greek mainland and a few islands, nationalism was ever-present in literature of the first decades, but gradually other themes emerged. The Ionian islands reunited with Greece in 1864 and continued being a major intellectual centre. Simultaneously, several men of letters from unredeemed lands had congregated inAthens, spurring the formation of the so-calledFirst Athenian School. Moreover, many participants of the War of Independence, includingTheodoros Kolokotronis,Christoforos Perraivos,Emmanuil Xanthos, andNikolaos Kasomoulis, wrote memoirs. The importance of these testimonial texts lies not only on historiographical grounds, but on their literary value as well, since they are written in a lively demotic language.[96] EspeciallyYannis Makriyannis's memoir, written between 1829 and 1850, is indeed considered a landmark of Greek literature.[97][98]
Heptanese literature was marked by Solomos reaching his poetical maturity, as well as by the appearance of many other authors. Poet and politicianAristotelis Valaoritis was a central figure of this new generation. He developed an epic manner with romantic contrasts, deriving his themes from the War of Independence and the acts of theklephts.[99]Georgios Tertsetis published a wide array of texts (eulogies, essays, journalism, plays, and lyric verse) and assisted Revolution veterans write their memoirs. Other writers includeIakovos Polylas, disciple of Solomos with important work on philology and translation,Andreas Laskaratos, noted for his satirical texts, andGerasimos Markoras, best known for the heroic poemThe Oath.
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Alexandros Soutsos, who published his first poems during the War of Independence, is considered the initiator of the First Athenian School.[100] It is generally accepted that he and his brotherPanagiotis introduced Romantic movement into liberated Greece.[101] Panagiotis Soutsos is known for his work on both poetry and prose, as well as for being the first to envisage and propose therevival of the ancient Olympic Games.[102]
Alexandros Rizos Rangavis was a multifarious author of great significance. He produced poetry, plays, dictionaries, books of philological and archaeological interest, and wrote Greece's first historical novel,The Lord of Morea (1850).[103]Demetrios Bernardakis (Maria Doxapatri - 1858,Fausta - 1893) was a major playwright of the time. However, as Katharevousa is an "un-theatrical" language, his work is largely forgotten.[104]
Initially, representatives of the Athenian School accepted the coexistence of the two languages, i.e. Demotic Greek and Katharevousa, but as time went on they championed the latter.[105] Its representatives tookFrench Romanticism as a model, in contrast to the Ionian writers who were influenced by theItalian counterpart.[95]
Even though prose fiction was mostly cultivated in Athens, the foremost examples of this period were far from the spirit of the Athenian School.Iakovos Pitsipios' satireXouth the Ape (1849) makes up Greece's first sociological novel.[106]The Papess Joanne (1866) is the best-known book ofEmmanuel Rhoides, a fierce and indefatigable satirist. Inspired by thefamous legend, it is today considered a classic of Greek literature.[107] Historical novelLoukis Laras (1879) byDemetrios Vikelas, a prolific author and translator, stands out for its naturalistic style and marked the beginning of a new era for Greek prose.[108]
In the late 19th century, an influx of new literary movements (Parnassianism,Naturalism,Symbolism,Realism) rejuvenated Greek literature. 1880 is considered a watershed, due to the publication of two poetic collections that reflect this process:Spider Webs byGeorgios Drossinis andVerses byNikos Kambas. It is in fact the debut of a new poetical generation, known as the 1880s Generation or theNew Athenian School.[109] Poets associated with it, stood for a rejection of Katharevousa and distanced themselves from Romantic form and content, which was now greatly based on rural life, village sketches, folk material, and everyday events.[110]
Kostis Palamas, who dominated the Greek literary scene for almost fifty years, is regarded as the chief proponent of the New Athenian School.[111][112] He produced some prose writings and a play, but he is best known as a poet and literary critic. Palamas promoted, perhaps more than any of his contemporaries, the use of the colloquial language in literature, establishing its eventual dominance.[111] Among his numerous poetic collections, perhaps the most important areIambs and Anapests (1897),Life Immovable (1904),The Dodecalogue of the Gypsy (1907), andThe King's Flute (1910).
Georgios Souris, frequently called "the modernAristophanes",[113][114] was immensely popular at the time.[115] He contributed satirical poems toAsmodaios and held a high-esteemed literary salon at his home, which was frequented by the likes of Palamas,Zacharias Papantoniou, andBabis Anninos.[115]
Apart from those aforementioned,Aristomenis Provelengios,Georgios Stratigis,Ioannis Polemis,Kostas Krystallis, andIoannis Gryparis are also considered members of the New Athenian School.[116] Perhaps the most prominent among them are Krystallis, famous for his bucolic poems, and Gryparis who wrote some of the finest sonnets of Greek literature.[117]
Constantine P. Cavafy, an adherent of Symbolism,Decadence, andAestheticism, wrote both historical and lyric poetry with equally erotic sensibility, in a subtle mixture of demotic and purist Greek.[118][119] He denied or even ridiculed traditional values ofChristianity,patriotism, andheterosexuality.[120] Cavafy was underestimated by his contemporaries, but his influence on subsequent generations to this day is unsurpassed.[118] He is one of the greatest poets of modern Greece, and probably the most famous abroad.[120][121] Among his best-known poems areWaiting for the Barbarians,Walls,Thermopylae, andIthaca.
Kostas Varnalis produced a variety of writings, including prose and criticism, but he is principally revered for his poems reflecting hisMarxist ideology. Particularly his compositionsThe Burning Light (1922) andBesieged Slaves (1927), characterized by effective satire and daring language, secured him a unique place in the history of modern Greek literature.[122] Varnalis was highly influential and is seen as the inaugural figure in the long tradition of 20th-century leftish Greek poetics.[118]
Other major poets who can be described as distinct cases areLorentzos Mavilis andAngelos Sikelianos. Mavilis, an eminent sonneteer, saw his first poems published in the 1890s, but followed the Heptanese tradition, in which he incorporated symbolistic elements.[123] Sikelianos is renowned for his powerful lyricism and his use offree verse, the first Greek to do so.[124] He caught the readership's eyes with the collectionThe Light-Shadowed (1909) and by his death in 1951, he had left an extensive literary oeuvre that contains great richness of expression.[125]
Around the 1880s, a boom in short story publication reshaped prose writing.[126] A new type of narrative, ethography,[d] was formed on the bases of Realism and Naturalism.[128] Its principal characteristic is the detailed depiction of a small, more or less contemporary, traditional community in its physical setting.[129] The heyday of ethography is roughly placed between 1880 and 1900.
Georgios Vizyinos, mainly a short-story writer, is thought of as the pioneer of modern Greek prose[130] He published most of his tales, including the iconicMy Mother's Sin,Who Was the Killer of My Brother?, andThe Only Journey of His Life, between 1883 and 1884.[131] Vizyinos was the first to deal with important issues of modern Greek literature, such as the concepts of ‘structure’ and ‘difference’, and the effectiveness of the literary text.[132]
Alexandros Papadiamantis stands among the most popular Greek prose writers.[133][134] A prolific author, he wrote over 200 novels, novellas and short stories,[135] of whichThe Merchants of the Nations (1883),The Gypsy Girl (1884),Dream on the Wave (1900), andThe Murderess (1903) stand out. Papadiamantis used techniques unknown to Greek readers at the time,[136] and created an aesthetic mould that was closer to Greek reality.[134]
Another important exponent of ethography wasAndreas Karkavitsas. He mostly wrote short stories, but his undoubted masterpiece is the novellaThe Beggar (1896). Like the other major prose writers of the time, he wrote in Katharevousa. However, he later became a strong supporter of Demotic.[137]
Grigorios Xenopoulos had an abundant output of short stories, novels, plays, and literary criticism. While his prose work is by no means of negligible significance, Xenopoulos is mostly revered for his contributions to theater; plays likeThe Secret of Countess Valeraina (1904),Fotini Santri (1908), andStella Violanti (1909) have earned him the characterization of a "stunning figure" of modern Greek theatre.[138] He was also the co-founder ofNea Estia, the most prestigious literary periodical in Greece.[139]
Nikos Kazantzakis cannot be easily subsumed to any particular period; while his career began in 1906, his most successful works were published during the decade of 1940 and afterwards. These include the novelsZorba the Greek (1946),Christ Recrucified (1951),Captain Michalis (1953), andThe Last Temptation (1955). The author himself however, considered the long poemOdyssey (1938) as hismagnum opus.[140] He also wrote theatrical plays, travel books, memoirs and essays. Kazantzakis is extensively revered and is the most famous Greek novelist outside Greece.[140][141]
Konstantinos Theotokis wrote both prose and poetry. His best known works (Honor and Money - 1912,The Convict - 1919,Slaves in their Chains - 1922) lie in the realm ofsocial realism.[142] Other authors of note from this period areKonstantinos Chatzopoulos andDimosthenis Voutyras.
Penelope Delta has earned a special reputation with her books for young readers, and is recognized as the first great writer of children literature in Greece.[143] Some of her most widely read novels areFairy Tale without Name (1910),In the Years of the Bulgar-Slayer (1911), andThe Secrets of the Marshes (1937). Delta was also an avid supporter of the movement to universalize the use of the demotic language in school.[144]
The disastrous ending of theGreco-Turkish War in 1922 signalled a period of manifoldcrises. In poetry, the lofty style of Palamas and Sikelianos was replaced by gentle lyricism that sprang from the convergence of Symbolism and Aestheticism.[145] It was manifested by a distinct group of poets, sometimes called "the generation of 1920," whose main common characteristic was a feeling of decadence and pessimism.[146] In this group belongNapoleon Lapathiotis,Kostas Ouranis,Kostas Karyotakis,Tellos Agras, andMaria Polydouri. Karyotakis is generally regarded as the finest of them.[145][147] His poetry excellently renders the atmosphere of the time and has been very influential to future generations.[148][149] His suicide in 1928, at the age of 31, had a profound effect and set a fashion for melancholy and sardonic verse that became known as Karyotakism.[150]
The decade of the 1930 was pivotal in the development of Greek literature. TheGeneration of the '30s refers to a diverse[151] group of illustrious writers and poets who introducedModernism into Greek literature.[152] This innovation was more apparent in poetry than in prose though, as many fiction writers continued employing older techniques and models.[153]
The literary magazineNea Grammata, which commenced circulation in 1935, constituted a hub for the major representatives of this group.[154]
The poets of the '30s Generation were largely influenced byAnglo-American modernism and FrenchSurrealism. Particularly the latter exerted wide influence on them.[155] They examined themes such as tradition, memory and history.[151]
The most important poets of the Generation of the '30s areGiorgos Seferis,Odysseas Elytis,Andreas Embirikos,Nikos Engonopoulos,Yannis Ritsos, andNikiforos Vrettakos.
Giorgos Seferis is regarded by some as the leading figure of the Generation of the '30s.[151] His debut, the collectionStrophe (1931), represented innovation and an exercise in renewing the versified stanza.[156] However, his most definitive work and the most truly representative text of Greek Modernism is the compound poemMythistorema (1935), which contains the basic concepts and recurring themes of the poetry to follow: common, almost unpoetic speech and a continued intermingling of history and mythology.[157] In 1963, Seferis became the first Greek to be awarded theNobel Prize in Literature.[158]
Odysseas Elytis published his first poems in 1935.[159] His experience in theGreco-Italian War marked him deeply and was later recast in one of his most famous compositions,Lay Heroic and Funeral for the Fallen Second Lieutenant in Albania (1946).[160] Other works of his areIt is Worthy (1959), widely referred as his masterpiece,[161][162]The Sovereign Sun (1971), andThe Monogram (1972). In his compositions, modernist European poetics and Greek literary tradition are fused in a highly original lyrical voice.[163] In 1979, Elytis was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.[164]
Andreas Embirikos is the initiator of Greek Surrealism.[165] His 1935 debut,Blast Furnace, written with theautomatic method, contains the first surrealist poems in Greek. It holds a unique place in modern Greek poetry, largely due to its groundbreaking structure and absence of logical coherence.[166] Other works by Embirikos include the poetic collectionHinterland (1945) andThe Great Eastern (1991), the longest, most sexually explicit of all Greek novels.[167]
Alongside Embirikos, Nikos Engonopoulos is the foremost figure of Greek Surrealism.[168] Many of his volumes, includingDon't talk to the Driver (1938), andThe Pianos of Silence (1939), irritated or even shocked the readers.[169] The peak achievement of his poetry, however, is consideredBolivar (1944), which goes beyond Surrealism.[170]
Yiannis Ritsos was inordinately prolific and excelled in several poetic forms.[118] More than 100 volumes were published in his lifetime,[171] but his best-known areEpitaphios (1936),Romiosini (1954), andMoonlight Sonata (1956). Regularly persecuted for his political beliefs, Ritsos is seen as an ideal combination of the qualities of the engaged citizen committed to his public duty, and the expression of the naturally restless and "libertarian" artist.[172] His figure has been extremely influential, permeating the post-Civil War generation of leftist poets.[173]
Nikiforos Vrettakos started under the strong influence of Karyotakism.[174] Later on, he introduced Surrealistic elements in his poetry, thus standing next to the other members of the '30s Generation.[175] Love for mankind, nature and lyricism with a happy disposition are the main characteristics of his most mature work.[174] He left an extended oeuvre of poems, prose, and essays.
Melissanthi,Nikos Kavvadias andNikos Gatsos are another three notable poets of that era. They co-existed with the Generation of the '30s but are seldom considered part of it. Melissanthi, frequently numbered among the most significant women Greek poets, is known for the poetic collectionsInsect Voices (1930),Prophecies (1931), andThe Barrier of Silence (1965). Her work has been described as an affirmation of death, rife with metaphysical agony and empathic humanism.[176] Kavvadias is one of the most beloved poets in Greece.[177] A sailor by profession, he took the readership by surprise with his first collection,Marabu (1933). He reappeared in 1947 withFog, but the rest of his poetic work was published posthumously.[177] His poems about life at sea combine modernist techniques with traditional elements, such as rhyme.[178] Gatsos published only one collection,Amorgos (1943), which however established him as one of the most prominent Greek surrealists.[179]
In contrast to poetry, most fiction writers of the '30s Generation were not so much concerned with discovering new literary modes.[153] Nonetheless, they revitalized prose by turning their eyes to broader horizons, trying to trace more complicated psychological conditions, and facing more serious social and human problems. Furthermore, they went beyond the limits of the short form and expressed themselves in the contemporary formpar excellence, the novel.[180]
Some writers belonging in the Generation of '30s, had actually made their debut earlier.[181] Such an example isStratis Doukas andPhotis Kontoglou, a vigorous intellectual, who worked as a novelist, critic, art professor, restorer, and icon painter. His work is difficult to place within any literary group, school or movement,[182] yet he is habitually considered part of the Generation of the '30s.[183] Kontoglou brought considerable change at the time, due to his evocative language and enchanting fable-like stories (Pedro Cazas - 1920,Vasanta - 1923, etc).[184]
Stratis Myrivilis was a veteran of theBalkan Wars, theGreco-Turkish War, andWorld War I, thus war is the dominant theme in his books. He is best known forLife in the Tomb (1930), a novel recounting the experiences of a sergeant on theMacedonian front.[185] Its great significance lies on its anti-war message, as well as the author's attempt to depict local idioms.[186] His other books includeThe Schoolmistress with the Golden Eyes (1933),Vasilis Arvanitis (1943), andThe Mermaid Madonna (1949).
Elias Venezis is the author of theNumber 31328 (1931), one of the most powerful accounts in Greek of the horror of imprisonment and enslavement, which drew heavily on his ordeal as a prisoner in theTurkish labour battalions during the Greco-Turkish War.[187] Venezis also wroteTranquility (1939) andAeolian Earth (1943), classics of modern Greek literature as well.
Yiorgos Theotokas was a diverse personality, having worked on many forms, most notably prose, drama, and essay. His novels, of whichArgo (1936) andPatients and Travellers (1964) stand out, cover a wide spectrum of political, societal and psychological themes.[188] His 1929 essayFree Spirit is seen by many as the intellectual manifesto of the '30s Generation.[189][152]
Unlike many of his contemporaries,M. Karagatsis didn't rely on personal experience for his books.[190] He handled a vast array of narrative forms, ranging from the historical to the social, to fantasy literature and exotic adventure, using a charming language and displaying highly original plots.[190][191] His best novels areColonel Lyapkin (1933),Chimaera (1936),Jungermann (1938) andThe 10 (1960). Karagatsis is probably the most avidly read fiction writer of this generation.[191]
Kosmas Politis (Lemon Grove - 1930,Eroica - 1937,At Hadjifrangou's - 1962),Angelos Terzakis (The Violet City - 1937,Princess Isabeau - 1945), andPandelis Prevelakis (Chronicle of a Town - 1938,The Sun of Death - 1959) are also major prose writers of the Generation of the '30s.
Compared to the abovementioned authors,Giannis Skarimbas andMelpo Axioti displayed more obvious modern preoccupations.[153] Skarimbas left a diverse body of work, including poetry and drama, but he is best remembered for his novels and novellas, where he employs an iconoclastic, avant-garde style.[192] These includeThe Divine Goat (1933),Mariambas (1935),Figaro's Solo (1939), andThe Waterloo of Two Fools (1959). Axioti is one of the most important women writers in modern Greek letters.[193] Her books, such asDifficult Nights (1938) andShall we dance, Maria? (1940), are noted for their style and originality.[194] She is also known for the poetic collectionsCoincidence (1939) andContraband (1959). In the same modernist vein areNikos Gabriel Pentzikis, andStelios Xefloudas.
After theliberation from the Triple Occupation, theGreek Civil War broke out. Life did not return to normality before 1950, but the great trials of the War have been reflected in creative literature.[195] An unprecedented number of new poets emerged, while already established writers continued dominating the literary scene.
Poets who began writing poetry in the first two decades after the end of World War II dealt with the bleakness of the Occupation and the Civil War and the belying of the widespread hope for a better future following the collapse ofNazism. At the same time, others adopted an existential approach in order to focus on themes such as the meaning of life and of death or the painful daily routine of the body.[196] Stylistically, despite trying to break away from the Generation of the '30s,[197] they followed their paradigm of low-key voice and abstract or elliptic forms of expression.[196]
The poetry of the so-called first post-war generation is exemplified byManolis Anagnostakis,Aris Alexandrou,Tassos Livaditis, andTitos Patrikios.[173]Takis Sinopoulos,Miltos Sachtouris,Eleni Vakalo,Nanos Valaoritis, andNikos Karouzos are major representatives of this cluster as well. Also, as a representative of the eclectic Thessaloniki Circle of poets, which thrived during the period, one would find the poetic work ofZoe Karelli.
Manolis Anagnostakis' grim experiences during World War II and the Civil War are given expression in his poetry, which is characterized by coexistence of lyricism and satire.[198] His poetic output is rather brief, but it has had a disproportionate influence on contemporary Greek literature.[199]Epochs I, his debut collection, was published in 1945, but his personal pinnacle isThe Target (1971).[200]
Aris Alexandrou wrote poems characterised by strangely lyrical verses. His poetic body of work, out of whichStill this Spring (1946) andBankrupt Line (1952) stand out, is limited but significant nevertheless. However, it is often overshadowed by the success of his only novel,Mission Box (1975).[201]
Tassos Livaditis combined lyricism and sensitivity with rage.[202] His involvement into left-wing politics formed the basis for his first poems, but he later turned to pureexistentialism, in which his childhood memories combine with discreet, rather obscure religious references.[203] Some of his best known works areBattle at the Edge of the Night (1952),It's Windy at the World's Crossroads (1953), andViolin for One-armed Man (1976).
Titos Patrikios is a poet whose main preoccupations are politics, love and everyday existence.[204] His verses are defined by clarity of thought, mild pessimism and scepticism.[205] Some of his collections areDirt Road (1954),Apprenticeship (1963), andDisputes (1981).
Takis Sinopoulos, influenced by existentialism, made big impression with his first collections, such asVerge (1951) andThe Meeting with Max (1956).[206]Deathfeast (1970) is another famed work of his. Sinopoulos' verse depicts desolate individual and collective landscapes which reflect the painful and far-reaching consequences of World War II and the Civil War.[204]
Miltos Sachtouris and Nanos Valaoritis belong to the second wave of Greek Surrealism.[207] Sachtouris, known forThe Forgotten (1945),The Walk (1960), andVessel (1971), wrote poetry that is simultaneously compassionate and macabre.[208] Valaoritis (The Punishment of the Magi - 1947,Breeding Ground for Germs - 1977) frequently restored older forms and made use of surrealistic modes to achieve poetic self-transcendence.[179] Poet and art historian Eleni Vakalo, who has been described as "one of the most respectable figures of post-war intellectual life", also incorporated elements of Surrealism.[209] She is known forTheme and Variations (1945),Recollections from a Nightmarish City (1948), andGenealogy (1972).
Nikos Karouzos has been labeled by some as a philosophical poet, while others consider him more of a religious one.[210] Indeed, he began his poetic career with strongly Christian verse, which he gradually abandoned.[203] His collections includeThe Return of Christ (1953) andNeolithic Nocturne in Kronstadt (1987).
Zoe Karelli first appeared on the literary scene in 1935 with a reflective essay published in the noted literary journal "Third Eye".Her work has a special place in the poetry written between the wars and by the Generation of the Thirties, as well as in the output of the post-war era. She is best known for her 1957 poem –Woman Man – which is difficult to translate because of her use of the feminine article with the Greek word for “mankind”.[211] Karelli is viewed as a pioneer feminist in Greece. She published twelve collections of poetry (1940-1973), five plays -- two of which were produced on stage -- more than 100 essays and studies, as well as translations, particularly works by T.S. Eliot. Karelli was the first woman of letters to be elected to the Academy of Athens in 1982, and received the coveted Ouranis Award for her complete works in 1978.
During the '50s and '60s, poetry began to diversify. Many poets focused upon the social pathology and economic recession of the post-war period, reflecting the massive urbanization that took place during the '60s,[212] while others turned to erotic poetry.[204] This new group, also known as the second post-war generation, is comprised by poets born after 1929; their distinction with the previous generation is based solely on the fact that, due to their young age, they weren't active participants of theResistance or the Civil War.[213]
Kiki Dimoula is recognised as one of the greatest female poets of modern Greece.[214] Her work drew thematically on the endless trials of everyday life, and was characterised by an immediate and intense confessional language.[203] Her best known collections areDarkness of Hell (1956),In Absentia (1958),The Bit of the World (1971), andThe Last Body (1981).
Dinos Christianopoulos was a daring poet, not deterred by prudery of his time. He is best known for his erotic poetry of homosexual tones, found in collections such asDefenceless Sorrow (1960) andThe Body and the Woodworm (1964).[215] However, he also wrote scathing poems dealing with societal themes (The Cross-Eyed Man - 1967).
Other poets belonging to the second post-war generation areNikos-Alexis Aslanoglou,Vyron Leontaris,Tassos Porfyris,Thomas Gorpas,Zefi Daraki,Markos Meskos, andAnestis Evangelou.[216]
Post-war prose is perhaps of greater diversity than the verse of the period.[217] Writers were markedly different from their predecessors; having grown up during the Occupation, the Resistance and the Civil War they clashed with the establishment and were intensely critical of every kind of authority.[218] Moreover, they revived short story[219] and tried out grafting modernist techniques, including theinternal monologue,stream-of-consciousness,self-referentiality andintertextuality, upon more traditional forms of narrative.[218]
In the immediate post-war period, some of the most noteworthy literary personalities are women, such asMargarita Liberaki andTatiana Gritsi-Milliex.[220] Liberaki is chiefly known for her novelThree Summers (1946). It is considered one of the most important post-war prose texts and has been described as being "ahead of its time."[221] Her work in theatre is also of considerable merit.[222] Gritsi-Milliex (Theseon Square - 1947,On Street of the Angels - 1949,In the First Person - 1958) had a long career with strong inclination to experimentation.[223]
Lili Zografou appeared in that period too, but her better-known books (Occupation: Prostitute - 1978,Love was one day late - 1994) were published much later. Overall, her work is noted for its non-conformist and feminist content.[224]
A later example isDido Sotiriou, one of the greatest female prose writers of modern Greece. She lived a turmoiled life, much of which is reflected on fer writings.[225] Her novels have received wide acclaim and particularlyFarewell Anatolia (1962), about theSmyrna Catastrophe, is regarded as a landmark of modern Greek literature.[226] She also wroteThe Dead are Waiting (1959) andCommandment (1976).
In 1946,The Broad River, a book on the Greco-Italian War, byGiannis Beratis was published. Written in a journal-like way, it signalled a trend of similar novels, such asPyramid 67 (1950) byRenos Apostolidis,The Siege (1953) byAlexandros Kotzias andThe Grooves of the Millstone (1955) byNikos Kasdaglis.[227]
Dimitris Chatzis made his debut with the novelThe Fire (1946), and later on he focused mainly on short stories, as inThe End of our Small Town (1960). His overall work is limited, but is praised for its simplicity and its "poetic" realism.[228]
Although he was not the first to be engaged withcrime fiction,Yannis Maris is acknowledged as the father of the genre in Greek.[229] He wrote a large number of novels, of which the best-known areCrime in Kolonaki (1953),Crime at the Backstage (1954),The Death of Timotheos Konstas (1961), andVertigo (1968).
Spyros Plaskovitis established himself both at home and abroad withThe Dam (1960), an allegorical novel about the fears and insecurities of the post-war individual.[230] His short stories collections, such asThe Storm and the Lamp (1955) andBarbed Wire (1974), are also notable.
Antonis Samarakis is one of the most widely translated of contemporary Greek authors.[230] He quickly established himself with his first books,Wanted: Hope (1954) andDanger Signal (1959). However, his most famous work isThe Flaw (1966), one of the most important Greek books about totalitarianism.[231] His works touch on a range of current issues in Greek political and social life, exposing the violence and tyranny of the modern state.[230]
Vassilis Vassilikos caused a sensation with his novellaThe Narration of Jason (1953).[232] Since then, he has embraced practically every type of literary genre, establishing himself as one of the most productive, popular and widely translated Greek writers.[230] His most famous work is the political thrillerZ (1966), followed byThe Plant, the Well, the Angel (1961),The Photographs (1964), andThe Monarch (1970).
During the 60's appeared a crop of writers of great impact. While the events of the Occupation, the Resistance and the Civil War remained one of the basic elements of their writing,[233] they expansed their thematology to various societal subjects of the time.[234] Their eagerness to experiment in style was one of their main traits.[234]
Stratis Tsirkas is perhaps the most outstanding prose writer of post-war Greece.[235][236] He owns his fame to the trilogyDrifting Cities (The Club - 1961,Ariagni - 1962,The Bat - 1965), which has been said that it propelled modern Greek novel to a "more advanced level."[237] It is exalted not only for its monumental length, but also for introducing the Greek readership to entirely new techniques of narration.[238] His other books includeNoureddine Bomba (1957) andThe Lost Spring (1976).
Giorgos Ioannou began his career as a poet, but he is better-known as a short story writer. His collections, most notablyOut of Self-Respect (1964),The Sarcophagus (1971) andOur Blood (1978), are known for their unusual mixture of self-analysis and intimate realism and have earned him a comparison withJames Joyce.[239]
Despite his very small body of work,Costas Taktsis is a prominent figure, due toThe Third Wedding (1962), a novel about the Greek petit bourgeoisie, widely considered a masterpiece of modern Greek literature.[240] He also publishedSmall Change (1972), a collection of short stories.
Menis Koumantareas was one of the most versatile and productive writers of his generation.[241] He wrote novels and short stories with equal success. His main literary concern was to depict the claustrophobic influence of social environment upon individuals.[242] Koumandareas' best-known works includeThe Pin-ball Machines (1962),The Glass Factory (1975),Mrs Koula (1978), andThe Handsome Captain (1982).
Thanassis Valtinos is one of the most influential writers of his generation.[243] He dealt with the atrocities of the Civil War and explored the issue of post-war immigration, setting new standards for prose writing with his innovative style.[244]The Book of the Days of Andreas Kordopatis (1972),Descent of the Nine (1978), andData from the Decade of the Sixties (1989) are some of his best known books.
The 60's was also a time when children's and adolescents' literature began to flourish. EspeciallyWildcat under Glass (1963) byAlki Zei is considered a classic work of the field.[245] Zei's other books includePetros' War (1971) andAchilles’ Fiancée (1987). Another influential children's author isGeorges Sari, best known forThe Treasure of Vaghia (1969) andNinette (1993).
The years following World War II were a period of prosperity for theatre. Dramatic plays often depicted the sad aspects of a cheerless life, the suffering and passions of simple, poor folk within a suffocating routine, or presented their own poetic idioms, creating extraordinary and unrealistic worlds.[246] At the same time, comic plays proved extremely popular and many of them were adapted to equally successful films.
Iakovos Kampanellis was a central personality of this renewal. The success of his early plays, especiallyThe Courtyard of Miracles (1957), blazed new trails for Greek playwrights of the time.[247] He became involved in various theatrical styles and his plays display significant divergences between various periods.[248] Kampanellis is also known for the playOur Great Circus (1972) and the novelMauthausen (1963).
Dimitris Psathas was one of the leading humorists of post-war Greece. He initially gained fame with his novelMadam Shoushou (1941), but he is best remembered for his large quantity of plays, that aptly commented on various issues of his day.[249] These includeVon Dimitrakis (1947),Looking for a Liar (1953), andWake up Vasilis (1965).
Loula Anagnostaki is one of the most powerful dramatist of this era, known for developing socialist and feminist themes in an alienated way.[250] Perhaps her best-known work is theTrilogy of the City (1965), comprised byOvernight Stay,The City, andThe Parade.
Other important playwrights of this period areKostas Mourselas (Men and Horses - 1959,Oh, what a World, Dad! - 1972), who adopted elements from thetheatre of the absurd,[251]Dimitris Kechaidis (The Fair - 1964,Laurels and Oleanders - 1979), known for combining realism with humour, andVassilis Ziogas (Antigone's Matchmaking - 1958,The Comedy of the Fly - 1967), known for his surrealist imagery.[252]
Mid-20th century was marked by theRegime of the Colonels, which governed the country from 1967 to 1974. Cultural life was severely affected: books were subject to censorship or prohibition and many writers (e.g. Yannis Ritsos,Elli Alexiou) were exiled or placed in detention.[253] Despite persecutions, numerous writers opposed the regime through their art.[197] One of the most apparent examples isEighteen Texts (1970), an anti-dictatorship statement signed by 18 well-known authors, including Giorgos Seferis, Takis Sinopoulos, Stratis Tsirkas, Menis Koumandareas,Rodis Kanakaris-Roufos, and Manolis Anagnostakis.[254]
The term "Generation of the '70s" is generally used to describe poets who published their first book during the dictatorship,[255] although there are many exceptions.[256] They were also dubbed the "third post-war generation"[257] and "generation of contention", since they tried to impeach the political and societal alienation of the dictatorship and, later on, of the earlyMetapolitefsi.[255] Integrating influences from various foreign sources, such as the radical political climate ofMay 1968 in France or the artistic experiments ofGruppo 63 inItaly,[258] they acted as importers of trends from Europe and America.[259] Frivolous language,[260] irony and humour were prominent components of their poetry.[261]
Lefteris Poulios is considered a leading figure of this generation.[262] His poetry, furious and obscene,echoes theBeat movement[263] and inveighs againstconsumerism andcommercialization.[264] Some of his most powerful poems are found in his early collections, such asPoetry (1969) andPoetry 2 (1973).
Nasos Vagenas writes predominantly about love, death, history/politics, and poetry itself,[265] in verses that are noted for their aphoristic language,[266] subtle innuendos and irony.[267] His collections includePedion Areos (1974),Biography (1978), andRoxana's Knees (1981).
Jenny Mastoraki (Tolls - 1972,Kin - 1978,Tales of the Deep - 1983) wrote poetry full of irony and bitterness,[268] standing out for its musicality and rich syntax.[269] Thematically, she deals with subjects such as feminism, censorship and authority.[270]
Katerina Anghelaki-Rooke is one of the most prominent poets of this generation[e][270] and the only one that ventured into longer compositions.[272] She excelled in erotic poetry that spoke frankly about passion and its pain.[204] Perhaps her most notable collections areWolves and Clouds (1963),Magdalene, the Great Mammal (1974),The Suitors (1984), andThe Anorexia of Existence (2011).
Katerina Gogou (Three Clicks Left - 1978,Idionymo - 1980),Manolis Pratikakis (Libido - 1978,The Water - 2003),Argyris Chionis (Attempts of Light - 1966,Shapes of Absence - 1973),Yannis Kondos (Circular Route - 1970,The Chronometre - 1972),Michalis Ganas (Unseated Dinner - 1978,Glass Ioannina - 1989),Maria Laina (Coming of Age - 1968,Hers - 1985),Vassilis Steriadis (Mr. Ivo - 1970,The Private Airplane - 1971), andAntonis Fostieris (The Great Trip - 1971,Precious Oblivion - 2003) are also notable members of the '70s Generation.[256][259]
Contrastingly to poetry, prose was rather scarce during the years of the dictatorship, even though many already established writers saw their books published.[273] By extension, most of the leading writers of the '70s appeared in 1974 or afterwards.[274] Their works use a variety of older and new means of expression and provide apt notion of the present and the past time.[275] Naturally, they had not yet cut themselves off from politics, but for most of them politics was now simply a starting point to deal with more modern themes such as the struggle between the personal and the collective within a constantly changing social universe.[276]
Ilias Papadimitrakopoulos,Dimitris Nollas,Antonis Sourounis,Margarita Karapanou, andMaro Douka stand as some of the most significant prose writers that established themselves during the '70s.[277] Papadimitrakopoulos is primarily known for his short stories, especially those inToothpaste with Chlorophyll (1973).[278] Nollas (The Fairy of Athens - 1974,Our Best Years - 1984,The Tomb near the Sea - 1992) is known for his perceptive portrayal of the Greek society over the years.[279] Sourounis (The Teammates - 1977,The Dance of the Roses - 1994,Gus the Gangster - 2000) delved into the world of thegastarbeiter by combining humour with bitterness.[280]Margarita Karapanou is best-known forKassandra and the Wolf (1976), abildungsroman that deals with authoritarianism and feminism.[270]Maro Douka (Fool's Gold - 1979,The Floating City - 1983) is applauded for her prose clarity and the insightful depiction of the changes of Greek society during the past decades.[281]
A unique case of a writer who made his debut during the dictatorship, isEugene Trivizas, who has been described as the most famous Greek storyteller and one of the most important authors of children's literature.[282] His earliest stories areThe Pirates of the Chimney andThe Bull that played the Bagpipes, both published around 1968 at children's magazine. Other important work by Trivizas includesThe Snowman and the Girl (1983),The Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pig (1993),The Last Black Cat (2001), and the playsThe Dream of the Scarecrow (1987) andThe Magical Pillows (1993). In 2006, Trivizas was a finalist for the internationalHans Christian Andersen Award.
The '80s saw a remarkable rise of prose. Readers and publishers massively turned to it and by the end of the decade it had taken over from poetry, traditionally the most prestigious literary form in Greece.[283] Writers left behind politics and chose private life as the core of their books,[284] while embarking on an intensive pursuit of new forms and genres.[276] Progressively, this trend intensified and by the '90s, Greek prose was a colorful mosaic, in both thematology and means of expression.[285] Minimalism, debunkment, parody, and mixing of different storytelling genres are common elements.[286] Compared to previous decades, from the '80s onwards prose has largely been dominated by female authors.[287]
Giannis Xanthoulis is one of the most popular writers that debuted in the '80s, having sold more than 1,5 million copies.[288] His books, includingThe Great Death (1981),The Dead Liqueur (1987), andThe Christmas Tango (2003), are known for the use of everyday language and a feeling of sexual emancipation.[289]
Eugenia Fakinou, withAstradeni (1982) andThe Seventh Garment (1983), contributed to the modern Greek novel as a sophisticated reinspection of history.[290] Her other books includeWho Killed Moby Dick? (2001) andGarden Ambitions (2007).
Zyranna Zateli is widely considered one of the most exciting Greek authors writing today.[291][292] She won critics and readers alike with the short-story collectionLast Year's Fiancée (1984),[291] but her most famous work is the novelAt Twilight they Return (1993), which falls under the genre ofmagical realism.[293]
Andreas Mitsou appeared in early '80s and today stands as a productive and much-awarded writer of short stories and novels.[294] He is perhaps best-known forThe Feeble Lies of Orestes Halkiopoulos (1995),Wasps (2001), andMister Episkopakis (2007).
Ersi Sotiropoulou is regarded as one of the pioneers of this generation, mostly thanks to her novelThe Prank (1982).[284] Today, she is probably best-known forZigzag through the Bitter Orange Trees (1999), which was successful both at home and abroad.[295] Her other books includeEva (2009) andWhat's left of the Night (2015).
Rhea Galanaki, who had already made her debut as a poet under the dictatorship, is one of contemporary Greece's most discussed novelists.[296] Her books, particularlyThe Life of Ismail Ferik Pasha (1989) andEleni, or, Nobody (1998), transformed the genre of historical novel, by emphasizing the psychology of the characters.[281] Her work has been widely translated.
Christos Chomenidis debuted withThe Wise Child (1993) and quickly established himself thanks to his subversive style of writing and wide array of settings and themes. His novelNiki (2014), awarded withEuropean Book Prize, is already recognized as a high achievement of contemporary Greek literature.[297]
Petros Markaris made his literary debut in 1995 withLate-Night News, and has since become a leading writer of detective novels.[298] Many of his books, includingZone Defense (1998) andChe committed Suicide (2003), have been translated in numerous foreign languages.
Amanda Michalopoulou received much attention for her early work, most notablyWishbone (1996), and has since become one of the most prominent voices in contemporary Greek literature. Her best known books, includingBaroque (2018) andHer Metamorphosis (2022), explore female experience, human relationships, and the spiritual dimension.
Ioanna Karystiani is one of the most notable writers that appeared during the '90s, establishing herself with the novelsLittle England (1997) andSuit on Soil (2000).[299] Her work is defined by rare consistency; her booksSacks (2010) andTime Pensive (2011) are considered among the best of the decade of 2010.[300]
Chrysa Dimoulidou is one of the best-selling Greek writers, since her books have sold around 2 million copies.[301] However, they are panned by the critics and have been called "light literature".[302] Dimoulidou made her debut in 1997 withRoses do not always smell and has since led a trend of various successful female writers of similar style. Among her other books areGod's Tears (2005),The Crossroad of Souls (2009), andThe Cellar of Shame (2014).
Other critically acclaimed and/or commercially successful books from the '80s and '90s areHistory (1982) byGiorgis Giatromanolakis,Fantastic Adventure (1985) byAlexandros Kotzias,The Crowd (1985-1986) byAndreas Franghias,The Great Square (1987) andThe Endless Writing of Blood (1997) byNikos Bakolas,Red Dyed Hair byKostas Mourselas (1989),The Daughter (1990) byPavlos Matesis,Saturday Night at the Edge of the City (1996) bySoti Triantafyllou,The Slapfish (1997) byLenos Christidis, andThe Search (1998) byNikos Themelis.
The poets that appeared in the '80s have been collectively named the "generation of the private vision", as their poetry is characterized by heavy introversion.[303] These includeCharis Vlavianos,Giorgos Blanas,Nikos Davvetas,Ilias Lagios,Sotiris Trivizas,Thanasis Chatzopoulos, andMaria Koursi. They detached themselves from their immediate predecessors and developed poetics closer to older generations.[304] Free verse was dominant, leading to a new kind of formalism.[305] Moreover, they did not share interest in the same themes, apart from classic topics such as death and love.[306] Politics was underepresented, partly due to the complacency born after the1981 parliamentary elections, whenPASOK formed Greece's first progressive government.[307] This generation as a whole has been unfavourably compared to previous generations, but many of its members have nevertheless been praised for achieving early maturity.[303][308]
The "decline" of poetry continued in the '90s. Only a few poets appeared during that decade and most of them are unknown to the wide readership. Publishing companies mainly preferred either prose books, which were more profitable, or, in some cases, works from already famous poets. In general, poets of this generation display a wide variety of styles and carried on trends that appeared in the '80s.[309]
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