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יהודים מזרחים | |
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| Languages | |
| Historic: Hebrew,Judeo-Aramaic (western andeastern varieties),Jewish Koine Greek Traditional: Hebrew,Judaeo-Arabic,Judeo-Berber,Judaeo-Aramaic,Judaeo-Iranian (Judaeo-Persian),Syriac,Kurdish,Turkish Modern: Israeli Hebrew,Mizrahi Hebrew (liturgical),French,English,Russian,Arabic,Georgian, andAzerbaijani,Juhuri | |
| Religion | |
| Judaism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Maghrebi Jews,Yemenite Jews,Iranian Jews,Bukharian Jews,Mountain Jews,Georgian Jews, andSamaritans; variousMiddle Eastern ethnic groups |
Mizrahi Jews (Hebrew:יהודי המִזְרָח), also known asMizrahim (מִזְרָחִים) in plural andMizrahi (מִזְרָחִי) in singular, and alternatively referred to asOriental Jews orEdot HaMizrach (עֲדוֹת־הַמִּזְרָח,lit. 'Communities of the East'),[1] are terms used in Israeli discourse to refer to a grouping ofJewish communities that lived in theMuslim world.Mizrahi is a political sociological term that was coined with the creation of theState of Israel. It translates as "Easterner" in Hebrew.[2][3]
The termMizrahi is almost exclusively applied to descendants of Jewish communities fromNorth Africa,Central Asia,West Asia, and parts of theNorth Caucasus.[4] This includesIraqi Jews,Iranian Jews,Bukharian Jews,Kurdish Jews,Afghan Jews,Mountain Jews,Georgian Jews, and the small community ofBahraini Jews.[5][6][7][8] The aforementioned groups are believed to derive their ancestry in large part from theBabylonian captivity.[9][10]Yemenite Jews are alsoMizrahi Jews, though they differ from otherMizrahim, who have undergone a process of total or partial assimilation toSephardic law and customs.
Syrian Jews,Egyptian Jews,Tunisian Jews,Moroccan Jews,Algerian Jews, andLibyan Jews (also known asMusta'arabi Jews orMaghrebi Jews) are often labeled asMizrahim, though these groups largely merged with the mass arrival of Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula, following theirexpulsion in the late 15th century from Spain and Portugal.Magrebi is an Arabic term which translates to "Westerners".Indian Jews (Paradesi Jew,Cochin Jews andBene Israel) are sometimes labeled asMizrahi, though members of the community have identified themselves as a separate category, as South Asian.[11]
These various Jewish communities were first officially grouped into a singular identifiable division duringWorld War II, when they were distinctly outlined in theOne Million Plan of theJewish Agency for Israel, which detailed the methods by which Jews of the diaspora were to be returned to the Land of Israel (then under theBritish Mandate for Palestine) afterthe Holocaust.[12]
An earlier cultural community of southern and eastern Jews were theSephardi Jews. Before the establishment of theState of Israel in 1948, the ancestors of various current communities of Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a distinctive Jewish subgroup,[6][13] and many considered themselves Sephardis, as they largely followed theSephardic customs and traditions ofJudaism with local variations inminhagim. The original Sephardi Jewish community was formed inSpain andPortugal, and after theirexpulsion in 1492, many Sephardim settled in areas where older Jewish communities already existed.[6] This complicated ethnography has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in official Israeli ethnic and religious terminology, withSephardi being used in a broad sense to include Mizrahi Jews, as well as Sephardim proper fromsouthern Europe around theMediterranean Basin.[13][14][6] TheChief Rabbinate of Israel has placedrabbis of Mizrahi origin in Israel under the jurisdiction of the Sephardi chief rabbis.[14]
Following theFirst Arab–Israeli War, over 850,000 Mizrahi and Sephardi Jewsleft Arab and Muslim-majority countries between 1948 and the early 1980s.[15][16] A 2018 statistic found that 45% of Jewish Israelis identified as either Mizrahi orSephardic.[17]
Mizrahi is literally translated as 'Oriental', 'Eastern',מזרחMizraḥ, Hebrew for 'east'. In the past, the wordMizrahim, corresponding to the Arabic wordMashriqiyyun (Arabic:مشرِقيون, 'Easterners'), referred to the natives of Turkey, Iraq and other Asian countries, as distinct from those of North AfricaMaghribiyyun (مغرِبيون, 'Westerners'). In medieval and early modern times, the corresponding Hebrew wordma'arav (מערב) was used for North Africa. In Talmudic andGeonic times, however, this wordma'arav referred to the land of Israel, as contrasted withBabylonia. For this reason, many[who?] object to the use ofMizrahi to include Moroccan and other North African Jews.[citation needed]
During the 1940s, before Israel's establishment, the demographerRoberto Bachi used the categories of "Mizrahim" and "Ashkenazim" in hisethnic classification of theYishuv.[18] In the 1950s, the Jews who came from the communities listed above were simply called and known as Jews (Yahud,يهود in Arabic). To distinguish them in the Jewish sub-ethnicities, Israeli officials, who themselves were mostly Eastern European Jews, transferred the nameMizrahi to them, though most of these immigrants arrived from lands located further westward than Central Europe.[19][20]Mizrahi is subsequently among the surnames most often changed by Israelis,[21] and many scholars, includingAvshalom Kor,[22] claim that the transferring of the nameMizrahim was a form ofOrientalism[23] towards the Oriental Jews, similar to the ways in whichWestjuden had labeledOstjuden as "second class" and excluded them from possible positions of power.[24][25]
The usage of the termMizrahim orEdot Hamizraḥ (עדות־המזרח), Oriental communities, grew in Israel as a result of the settlement of Jewish immigrants from Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, along with followers of Ashkenazi, Sephardi, andTemani (Yemenite) rites. In modern Israeli usage, it refers to all Jews from Central and West Asian countries, many of them Arabic-speaking Muslim-majority countries. The term came to be widely used by Mizrahi activists in the early 1990s. Since then in Israel it has become an accepted semi-official and media designation.[26]
Before the establishment of the state of Israel, Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a separate Jewish subgroup. Instead, they generally characterized themselves asSephardi, as they follow thecustoms and traditions ofSephardi Judaism (but with some differences among theminhag "customs" of particular communities). That has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in Israel and in religious usage, with "Sephardi" being used in a broad sense and including Mizrahi Jews, North African Jews as well as Sephardim proper. From the point of view of the official Israeli rabbinate, anyrabbis of Mizrahi origin in Israel are under the jurisdiction of theSephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel.[citation needed]
Sami Michael rejects the termsMizrahim andEdot HaMizrach, claiming it is a fictitious identity advanced byMapai to preserve a "rival" to theAshkenazim and help them push theMizrahim below in the social-economic ladder, so they will not ever be in line with the Israeli elites of European Jewish descent.[27] He also speaks against the Mapai manner of labeling all the Oriental Jews as "one folk" and erasing their unique and individual history as separated communities. Instead, he wonders why the real Easterners of his time, who were the Eastern European Jewish peasants from the villages, were not labeled as "Mizrahi" in Israel, despite this term being more appropriate than for the Oriental Jews who were labeled that way. Michael is also against the inclusion of Oriental Jewish communities who do not descend fromSepharadic Jews, as "Sepharadim" by Israeli politicians, calling it "historically inaccurate". He also claims that his work as an author is always referred to as "ethnic", while European Jews' work, even if historic in theme, is not, as a result of racism.[27]
Most of the Mizrahi activists actually originated from North African Jewish communities, traditionally called "Westerners" (Maghrebi), rather than "Easterners" (Mashreqi). The Jews who emigrated to Palestine from North Africa in the 19th century and prior started their own political and religious organization in 1860 which operated in Jerusalem and was called "The Western Jewish Diaspora Council" (Hebrew:ועד העדה המערבית בירושלים). Many Jews originating from Arab and Muslim countries today rejectMizrahi (or any) umbrella description, and prefer to identify themselves by their particular country of origin, or that of their immediate ancestors, such as "Moroccan Jew", or prefer to use the old termSephardi in its broader meaning.[28]
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Today, many[who] identify non-Ashkenazi rite Jews as Sephardi – in modern HebrewSfaradim – mixing ancestral origin and religious rite. This broader definition of "Sephardim" as including all, or most, Mizrahi Jews is also common in Jewish religious circles. During the past century[20th?], the Sephardi rite absorbed part of the unique rite of theYemenite Jews,[citation needed] and lately,Beta Israel religious leaders in Israel have also joined Sefardi rite collectivities,[citation needed] especially following rejection of their Jewishness by some Ashkenazi circles.
The reason for this classification of all Mizrahim under Sephardi rite is that most Mizrahi communities use much the same religious rituals as Sephardim proper due to historical reasons. The prevalence of the Sephardi rite among Mizrahim is partially a result of Sephardim proper joining some of Mizrahi communities following the 1492Alhambra Decree, which expelled Jews fromSepharad (Spain andPortugal). Over the last few centuries, the previously distinctive rites of the Mizrahi communities were influenced, superimposed upon or altogether replaced by the rite of the Sephardim, perceived as more prestigious. Even before this assimilation, the original rite of many Jewish Oriental communities was already closer to the Sephardi rite than to the Ashkenazi one. For this reason, "Sephardim" has come to mean not only "Spanish Jews" proper but "Jews of the Spanish rite", just as "Ashkenazim" is used for "Jews of the German rite", whether or not their families originate in Germany.
Many of the Sephardi Jews exiled from Spain resettled in greater or lesser numbers in theArab world, such as Syria and Morocco. In Syria, most eventually intermarried with, and assimilated into, the larger established communities ofMusta'rabim and Mizrahim. In some North African countries, such as Morocco, Sephardi Jews came in greater numbers, and so largely contributed to the Jewish settlements that the pre-existing Jews were assimilated by the more recently arrived Sephardi Jews. Either way, this assimilation, combined with the use of the Sephardi rite, led to the popular designation and conflation of most non-Ashkenazi Jewish communities from Western Asia and North Africa as "Sephardi rite", whether or not they were descended from Spanish Jews, which is what the terms "Sephardi Jews" and "Sfaradim" properly implied when used in the ethnic as opposed to the religious sense.
In some Arabic countries, such as Egypt and Syria, Sephardi Jews arrived via theOttoman Empire would distinguish themselves from the already established Musta'rabim, while in others, such as Morocco and Algeria, the two communities largely intermarried, with the latter embracing Sephardi customs and thus forming a single community.
In theArab world (such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria and Iraqi Kurdistan), Mizrahim most often speakArabic.[1] Most of the many notable philosophical, religious and literary works of the Jews in Spain, North Africa and Asia were written in Arabic using a modifiedHebrew alphabet.[citation needed]
Aramaic is a Semitic language subfamily. Specific varieties of Aramaic are identified as "Jewish languages" since they are the languages of major Jewish texts such as theTalmud andZohar, and many ritual recitations such as theKaddish. Traditionally, Aramaic has been a language of Talmudic debate inyeshivot, as many rabbinic texts are written in a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic. The currentHebrew alphabet, known as "Assyrian lettering" or "the square script", was in fact borrowed from Aramaic.[citation needed]
InKurdistan, a region which includes parts ofTurkey,Syria,Iraq andIran, the language of the Mizrahim is a variant of Aramaic.[1] As spoken by theKurdish Jews,Judeo-Aramaic languages areNeo-Aramaic languages descended fromJewish Babylonian Aramaic. They are related to the Christian Aramaic dialects spoken byAssyrian people, which areSyriac Christians whoclaim descent from Assyria, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, dating back to 2500 BC in ancientMesopotamia.[29]
Among other languages associated with Mizrahim areJudeo-Iranian languages such asJudeo-Persian, theBukhori dialect,Judeo-Tat, andKurdish languages;Georgian;Judeo-Marathi andJudeo-Malayalam.Bukharian Jews from various countries in Central Asia and theMountain Jews living inAzerbaijan are also widely fluent inRussian due to several ofthose countries' former status as republics of theSoviet Union.[citation needed]
TheJewish diaspora in theMiddle East outside theLand of Israel started in the 6th century BCE, during theBabylonian captivity,[30] which also caused some Jews to flee to Egypt.[31] Other early diaspora areas in the Middle East and North Africa werePersia,Yemen[32] andCyrene.[33]
AsIslam started to spread in the 7th century CE, Jews who were living under Muslim rule becamedhimmis. Because Jews were seen as "People of the Book", they were allowed to practice their own religion, but they had an inferior status in an Islamic society.[34] Even though Jews in the Middle East and North Africa formed strong attachments to the areas in which they lived,[35] they were seen as a community which was clearly distinct from other communities.[35][36] For example, whileMusta'arabi Jews in the Arab world were influenced by the local culture, e.g. they started speaking variants of the Arabic language[37] and ate their own versions of the same food,[38] they did not adopt Arab identity. Instead, Jews in the Arab world saw themselves (including the ones with family background of converts) and were seen as fundamentally a part of the wider collective of the Jewish people, and they maintained their identity as the descendants of the ancientIsraelite tribes.[35]
Some Mizrahim migrated toIndia,Central Asia, and theCaucasus.[1]
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After the establishment of the State of Israel and subsequent1948 Arab–Israeli War, most Mizrahim were either expelled by their Arab rulers or chose to leave and emigrated to Israel.[39][40] According to the 2009 Statistical Abstract of Israel byIsrael Central Bureau of Statistics; 2,043.8 thousand Israeli Jews were Israel-born (father born in Israel), 681.4 thousand were from other Asian countries (including 95.6 thousand from India and Pakistan), 859.1 thousand were from African countries (including 106.9 thousand from Ethiopia), and 1,939.4 thousand were from Europe, America or Oceania.[41]
Anti-Jewish actions by Arab governments in the 1950s and 1960s, in the context of the founding of the State of Israel, led to the departure of large numbers of Mizrahi Jews from the Middle East and North Africa.[citation needed] The exodus of 25,000 Mizrahi Jews from Egypt after the 1956Suez Crisis led to the overwhelming majority of Mizrahim leaving Arab countries.[citation needed] They becamerefugees. Most went to Israel. Many Moroccan and Algerian Jews went to France. Thousands of Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian Jews emigrated to the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and other countries in the Americas.[citation needed]
Today, as many as 40,000 Mizrahim still remain in communities scattered throughout the non-ArabMuslim world, primarily in Iran, but also Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, and Turkey.[42] There are few Maghrebim remaining in the Arab world. About 3,000 remain in Morocco and 1,100 in Tunisia.[43] Other countries with remnants of ancient Jewish communities with official recognition, such as Lebanon, have 100 or fewer Jews. A trickle of emigration continues, mainly to Israel and the United States.[citation needed]
On 9 May 2021, the first physical memorialization in Israel of the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from Arab land and Iran was placed on the Sherover Promenade in Jerusalem. It is titled the Departure and Expulsion Memorial following the Knesset law for the annual recognition of the Jewish experience held annually on 30 November.[44]
The text on the Memorial reads;
"With the birth of the State of Israel, over 850,000Jews were forced from Arab Lands and Iran.The desperate refugees were welcomed by Israel.
By Act of the Knesset: 30 Nov, annually, is theDeparture and Expulsion Memorial Day.Memorial donated by the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation,With support from the World Sephardi Federation, City of Jerusalem and the Jerusalem Foundation"
The sculpture is the interpretive work of Sam Philipe, a fifth generation Jerusalemite.[citation needed]
Refuge in Israel was not without its tragedies: "In a generation or two, millennia of rooted Oriental civilization, unified even in its diversity", had been wiped out, writes Mizrahi scholarElla Shohat.[45] The trauma of rupture from their countries of origin was further complicated by the difficulty of the transition upon arrival in Israel; Mizrahi immigrants and refugees were placed in rudimentary and hastily erected tent cities (ma'abarot) often in development towns on the peripheries of Israel. Settlement inmoshavim (cooperative farming villages) was only partially successful, because Mizrahim had historically filled a niche ascraftsmen and merchants and most did not traditionally engage in farmwork. As the majority left their property behind in their home countries as they journeyed to Israel, many suffered a severe decrease in their socio-economic status aggravated by their cultural and political differences with the dominant Ashkenazi community. Furthermore, a policy ofausterity was enforced at that time due to economic hardships.[citation needed]
Mizrahi immigrants arrived speaking many languages:[citation needed]
Mizrahim from elsewhere brought Georgian,Judaeo-Georgian and various other languages with them. Hebrew had historically been a language only of prayer for most Jews not living in Israel, including the Mizrahim. Thus, with their arrival in Israel, the Mizrahim retained culture, customs and language distinct from their Ashkenazi counterparts. The collective estimate for Mizrahim (circa 2018) is at 4,000,000.[46]
The cultural differences between Mizrahi and Ashkenazi Jews impacted the degree and rate of assimilation into Israeli society, and sometimes the divide between Eastern European and Middle Eastern Jews was quite sharp. Segregation, especially in the area of housing, limited integration possibilities over the years.[47] Intermarriage between Ashkenazim and Mizrahim is increasingly common in Israel and by the late 1990s 28% of all Israeli children had multi-ethnic parents (up from 14% in the 1950s).[48] It has been claimed that intermarriage does not tend to decrease ethnic differences in socio-economic status,[49] however, that does not apply to the children of inter-ethnic marriages.[50]
Although social integration has increased, disparities persist. According to a study conducted by the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS), Mizrahi Jews are less likely to pursue academic studies than Ashkenazi Jews. On the other side, Israeli-born Ashkenazim are up to twice as likely to study in a university as Israeli-born Mizrahim.[51] Furthermore, the percentage of Mizrahim who seek a university education remains low compared to second-generation immigrant groups of Ashkenazi origin, such as Russians.[52] According to a survey by the Adva Center, the average income of Ashkenazim was 36 percent higher than that of Mizrahim in 2004.[53]
In 2023, journalist Shany Littman argued the dynamics of inequality had reversed, with most Israeli cabinet ministers and city mayors being Mizrahi Jews. She also stated that middle-class Mizrahi women earned more than their Ashkenazi counterparts.[54]
TheA-WA song "Hana Mash Hu Al Yaman" highlights the discrimination of Mizrahim, especially Yemenite Jews, faced in the 1940s, when they entered Israel as refugees. The song's lyrics depict a reality of cultural assimilation, low income jobs, and a pressure to leave their Yemeni traditions behind.[55]
The Middle Eastern Jewish populations have a connection to the Jewish communities of Europe and North Africa in their paternal gene pool, suggesting a common Middle Eastern origin between them.[56]
In autosomal analyses, theIraqi Jews,Iranian Jews,Bukharian Jews,Kurdish Jews,Mountain Jews, andGeorgian Jews form a close genetic cluster. When examined at a more detailed level, the groups can be separated from each other.[57] This cluster plots between Levantine and Northern West Asian populations.[58][57][59] Syrian and North African Jews are separate from it and closer to the Sephardi Jews.[60]Yemenite Jews are distinct from other Jewish groups and cluster with the non-Jewish population of the Arabian Peninsula (although connection has been established between them and other Jewish diaspora communities).[57][61]
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