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| Misumalpan | |
|---|---|
| Misuluan | |
| Geographic distribution | Mosquitia |
| Linguistic classification | Macro-Chibchan ?
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | misu1242 |
 Historical (dotted) and current (colored) distribution of the Misumalpan languages | |
TheMisumalpan languages (alsoMisumalpa orMisuluan) are a small family of languages spoken by different Indigenous groups in the region commonly known as Mosquitia, referred to in Miskitu as Yapti Tasba Masrka (“the People’s Land”).[1]
The name “Misumalpan” was coined by American anthropologist John Alden Mason in the early 20th century as a comparative linguistic term.[2] It is not an autonym used by any of the Indigenous nations it describes. The term is an acronym formed from the names of the family’s three branches: Miskitu, Mayangna (often labeled Sumu/Sumo in earlier literature), and Matagalpan languages.[3]
Scholarly sources note that “Sumu/Sumo” are exonyms, whereas Mayangna is the community’s own name.[4] Similarly, Miskitu is the preferred self-designation, while “Miskito” reflects Spanish and English colonial spellings.[5]
The grouping was first recognized as a linguistic family by Walter Lehmann in 1920.[6]
All recorded languages of the Matagalpan branch are extinct, although Matagalpa cultural identity persists.[7][failed verification] By contrast, Miskitu and Mayangna remain living languages. Miskitu has[when?] an estimated 180,000–200,000 speakers and functions as a regional lingua franca on the Caribbean coast.[8][failed verification]
Most Mayangna speakers are bilingual in either Miskitu or Spanish, depending on region.[9][failed verification]
Scholars[who?] emphasize that Miskitu, Mayangna, and Matagalpan represent distinct Indigenous peoples with their own histories and identities.
The term “Misumalpan family” refers solely to a linguistic classification and is not a cultural, political, or self-identified grouping.[3]
Kaufman (1990) finds a connection withMacro-Chibchan to be "convincing", but Misumalpan specialistKen Hale considered a possible connection between Chibchan and Misumalpan to be "too distant to establish".[10]
Miskito became the dominant language ofMosquitia from the late 17th century on, as a result of the people's alliance with the British Empire. In north-eastern Nicaragua, it continues to be adopted by former speakers of Sumo. Its sociolinguistic status is lower than that of the English-basedcreole of the southeast, and in that region, Miskito seems to be losing ground. Sumo is endangered in most areas where it is found, although some evidence suggests that it was dominant in the region before the ascendancy of Miskito. The Matagalpan languages are long since extinct, and not very well documented.
All Misumalpan languages share the same phonology, apart fromphonotactics. The consonants are p, b, t, d, k, s, h, w, y, andvoiced andvoiceless versions of m, n, ng, l, r; the vowels are short and long versions of a, i, u.
Below is a full list of Misumalpan language varieties listed byLoukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[11]
| Proto-Misumalpan | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Misumalpan languages |
Below are Proto-Misumalpan reconstructions byAdolfo Constenla Umaña (1987):[12]
| No. | Spanish gloss (original) | English gloss (translated) | Proto-Misumalpan |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | abuela | grandmother | titiŋ |
| 2 | abuelo | grandfather | *nini |
| 3 | acostarse | lie down | *udaŋ |
| 4 | agua | water | *li |
| 5 | amarillo | yellow | *lalalh |
| 6 | árbol | tree | *ban |
| 7 | arena | sand | *kawh |
| 8 | atar | tie | *widi |
| 9 | ayote | pumpkin | |
| 10 | beber | drink (v.) | *di |
| 11 | boca | mouth | *ta |
| 12 | bueno | good | *jam- |
| 13 | búho | owl | *iskidi |
| 14 | cantárida | Spanish fly | *mada |
| 15 | caracol | snail | *suni |
| 16 | caramba | interjection | *anaj |
| 17 | casa | house | *u |
| 18 | cocer | cook (tr.) | *bja |
| 19 | cocerse | cook (intr.) | *wad |
| 20 | colibrí | hummingbird | *sud |
| 21 | cuarta persona | fourth person | *-ni |
| 22 | chica de maíz | corn girl | *sili |
| 23 | chile | chile | *kuma |
| 24 | dar | give | *a |
| 25 | dinero | money | *lihwan |
| 26 | dormir | sleep | *jabu |
| 27 | dos | two | *bu |
| 28 | esposa | wife | *maja |
| 29 | estar | to be | *da |
| 30 | exhortativo-imperativo plural | plural exhortative-imperative verb | *-naw |
| 31 | flecha | arrow | |
| 32 | formativo de verbo intransitivo | formative intransitive verb | *-wa |
| 33 | gallinácea silvestre | wild fowl | |
| 34 | garrapata | tick | *mata |
| 35 | garza | heron | *udu |
| 36 | guardar | watch (v.) | *ubak |
| 37 | guatusa | Dasyprocta punctata | *kjaki |
| 38 | gusano | worm | *bid |
| 39 | hierro | iron | *jasama |
| 40 | humo | smoke | |
| 41 | interrogativo | interrogative | *ma |
| 42 | interrogativo | interrogative | *ja |
| 43 | ir | go | *wa |
| 44 | jocote | Spondias purpurea | *wudak |
| 45 | lejos | far | *naj |
| 46 | lengua | tongue | *tu |
| 47 | luna | moon | *wajku |
| 48 | llamarse | be called, named | *ajaŋ |
| 49 | maíz | corn | *aja |
| 50 | maduro | mature | *ahawa |
| 51 | matapalo | strangler fig | *laka |
| 52 | mentir | lie | *ajlas |
| 53 | mujer | woman | *jwada |
| 54 | murciélago | bat | *umis |
| 55 | nariz | nose | *nam |
| 56 | negativo (sufijo verbal) | negative (verbal suffix) | *-san |
| 57 | nube | cloud | *amu |
| 58 | ocote | Pinus spp. | *kuh |
| 59 | oír | hear | *wada |
| 60 | oler (intr.) | smell (intr.) | *walab |
| 61 | oreja | ear | *tupal |
| 62 | orina | urine | *usu |
| 63 | perezoso | lazy | *saja |
| 64 | pesado | heavy | *wida |
| 65 | piedra | stone | *walpa |
| 66 | piel | skin | *kutak |
| 67 | piojo | louse | |
| 68 | pléyades | Pleiades | *kadu |
| 69 | podrido | rotten | |
| 70 | meter | place, put | *kan |
| 71 | pozol | pozol | *sawa |
| 72 | presente (sufijo verbal) | present (verbal suffix) | *ta |
| 73 | primera persona (sufijo) | first person (suffix) | *-i |
| 74 | primera persona (sufijo) | first person (suffix) | *-ki |
| 75 | red | net | *wali |
| 76 | rodilla | knee | *kadasmak |
| 77 | rojo | red | *paw |
| 78 | sangre | blood | *a |
| 79 | segunda persona (sufijo) | second person (suffix) | *-ma |
| 80 | tacaní (tipo de abeja) | tacaní (type of bee) | *walaŋ |
| 81 | tepezcuintle (paca) | Cuniculus paca | *uja |
| 82 | tercer persona (sufijo) | third person (suffix) | *-ka |
| 83 | teta | nipple | *tja |
| 84 | teta | nipple | *su |
| 85 | tigre | jaguar | |
| 86 | tos | cough | *anaŋ |
| 87 | tú | you (sg.) | *man |
| 88 | verde | green | *saŋ |
| 89 | viento | wind | *win |
| 90 | yerno | son-in-law | *u |
| 91 | yo | I | *jam |
| 92 | zacate | grass | *tun |
| 93 | zopilote | vulture | *kusma |
| 94 | zorro hediondo | skunk | *wasala |
