Historically, 'missile' referred to anyprojectile that is thrown, shot or propelled towards a target; this usage is still recognized today with any unguided jet- or rocket-propelled weapons generally described asrocket artillery. Airborneexplosive devices without propulsion are referred to asshells if fired by anartillery piece andbombs if dropped by an aircraft.
Missile is derived fromLatin "missilis" meaning "that may be thrown".[1][2] The first use of the word was in the early 1600s byPhilemon Holland.[1] Historically, 'missile' referred to anyprojectile that is capable of being thrown or a weapon that is shot or propelled towards a target.[2][3] Later military definition refers to a missile as an airborne ranged weapon capable ofself-propelled flightguided towards a specific target.[3][4] Any unguidedjet orrocket-propelled weapons are generally described asrocket artillery,[5] and airborneexplosive devices without propulsion are referred to asshells if fired by anartillery piece andbombs if dropped by a vehicle such as anaircraft.[6][7]
A missile is most often guided by a guidance system though there are missiles that are unguided during some phases of flight.[18] Missile guidance refers to methods of guiding a missile to its intended target. Effective guidance is important because reaching the target position accurately and precisely is a critical factor for its effectiveness.[19] The missile guidance system accomplishes this by four steps: tracking the target, computing the directions using tracking information, directing the computed inputs to steering control and steering the missile by directing inputs to motors or flight control surfaces.[20] The guidance system consists of three sections: launch, mid-course and terminal with same or different systems employed across sections.[20]
The guidance andhoming systems are generally classified broadly intoactive,semi-active andpassive.[18] In active homing systems, the missile carries the equipment needed to transmit the radiation needed to illuminate the target and receive the reflected energy. Once the homing is initiated, the missiledirects independently towards the target.[21] In semi-active systems, the source of the radiation is located outside the missile usually in the launch vehicle which might be an aircraft or a ship and the missile will receive the radiation to direct towards the target. As the source is located outside, the launch vehicle needs to continue supporting the missile till it is guided to the intended target.[22] In a passive system, the missile relies solely on the information from the target.[22] The homing system might uselight such asinfrared,laser orvisible light,radio waves or otherelectromagnetic radiation to illuminate the target. Once the guidance system identifies the target, the target might required to be tracked continuously if it is in motion. A guidance system might useINS which consists of agyroscope andaccelerometer or might usesatellite guidance (such asGPS) to track the missile’s position relative to a known target.[23] The missile computers will compute the flight path required to steer the missile towards the target.[22] Incommand guidance, a human operator may operate it manually or a support or launch system will transmit commands by using eitheroptic fiber orradio to guide the missile.[24] The flight system uses the data from the targeting or guidance system to maneuver the missile in flight which might be accomplished usingvectored thrust of engines or aerodynamic maneuvering usingflight control surfaces such aswings, fins andcanards.[25]
Propulsion
Missiles are powered bypropellants igniting to produce thrust and might employ types ofrocket orjet engines.[26] Rockets might be fueled bysolid-propellants which are comparatively easier to maintain and enables faster deployment. These propellants contain afuel andoxidizer mixed in select proportions with the grain size and burn chamber determining the rate and time of burn.[27] Larger missiles might useliquid-propellant rockets where propulsion is provided by a single or combination of liquid fuels.[28] A hybrid system uses solid rocket fuel with a liquid oxidizer.[28] Jet engines are generally used incruise missiles, most commonly of theturbojet type, because of their relative simplicity and low frontal area whileturbofans andramjets can also be theoretically used.[29][30]
From the 1950s to early 1970s, the United States operatedProject Rover andProject Pluto for developingnuclear thermal rockets and nuclear-powered ramjet engines for powering cruise missiles respectively. Both performed static engine tests but were cancelled before deployment.[31] Ballistic missiles often have multiple stages and might use similar type or a mix of propulsion types. Some missiles may have additional propulsion from another source at launch such as acatapult,cannon ortank gun.[32]
Missiles can be classified into categories by various parameters such as type, launch platform and target, range, propulsion and guidance system.[35] Missiles are generally categorized into strategic or tactical missile systems. Tactical missile systems are short-range systems used to carry out a limited strike in a smaller area and might carry conventional or nuclear warheads.[36][37] Strategic missiles are long-range weapons used to target beyond the immediate vicinity and are mostly designed to carry nuclear warheads though other warheads can also be fitted.[37]
4. Stage3 terminates and post-boost vehicle(D) separates
5. Vehicle maneuvers itself and prepares re-entry vehicle (RV)
6. RV with decoys and chaffs deploys
7. RV re-enters the atmosphere
8. Warhead(s) detonate on target
Strategic
Strategic weapons are often classified intocruise andballistic missiles.[38] Ballistic missiles are powered by rockets during launch and follow a trajectory that arches upwards before descending to reach its intended target while cruise missiles are continuously powered by jet engines and travel at a flatter trajectory.[38]
Ballistic
A ballistic missile is powered by single or multiple rockets in stages initially before following an unpowered trajectory that arches upwards before descending to reach its intended target. It can carry both nuclear and conventional warheads.[39] A ballistic missile might reachsupersonic orhypersonic speed and often travelout of theEarth's atmosphere before re-entry.[40] It usually has three stages of flight:[39]
Boost phase: First phase at launch when one or more stages of rocket engine(s) fire propelling the missile
Mid-course phase: Second phase when the rocket engines stop firing and the missile continues ascending upwards on the given trajectory
Terminal phase: Final phase when the warhead(s) detach and descend towards the target
Acruise missile is a guided missile that remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight at a constant speed.[42] It is designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high precision, and is propelled by jet engines.[39] A cruise missile can be launched from multiple platforms and is often self-guided. It flies at lower speeds (oftensubsonic orsupersonic) and close to the surface of the Earth, which expends more fuel but makes it difficult to detect.[38]
An anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and destroyheavily armoredmilitary vehicles. ATGMs range in size fromshoulder-launched weapons, which can be transported by a single soldier, to larger tripod-mounted or vehicle and aircraft mounted missile systems. Earlier man-portableanti-tank weapons likeanti-tank rifles and magneticanti-tank mines had a short range but sophisticated antitank missiles can be directed to a longer target by several different guidance systems, including laser guiding, television camera, orwire guiding.[45]
An air-to-air missile (AAM) is a missile fired from afighter aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft. AAMs are typically powered by one or morerocket motors, usuallysolid fueled but sometimesliquid fueled. Aradar orheat emission based homing system is generally used and sometimes can use a combination. Short range missiles used toengage opposing aircraft at ranges of less than 16 km often use infrared guidance whilelong range missiles mostly rely upon radar guidance.[46]
An air-to-surface missile (ASM) is a missile fired from anattack aircraft,strike fighter or anattack helicopter for the purpose of destroying land based targets. Missiles are typically guided and unguidedglide bombs not considered missiles. The most common propulsion systems are rocket motor for short range and jet engines for long-range butramjets are also used. Missile guidance is typically vialaser, infrared homing,optical orsatellite. Air-to-surface missiles for ground attack by aircraft provide a higherstandoff distance engaging targets from far away and out of range of low range air defenses.[46]
A surface-to-air missile (SAM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroyaircraft, other missiles or flying objects. It is a type ofanti-aircraft system and missiles have replaced most other forms of anti-aircraft weapons due to the increased range and accuracy.Anti-aircraft guns are being used only for specialized close-in firing roles.[47] Missiles can be mounted in clusters on vehicles or towed on trailers and can be hand operated by infantry. SAMs frequently use solid-propellants and may be guided by radar or infrared sensors or by a human operator using optical tracking.[46]
A surface-to-surface missile (SSM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground or the sea and strike targets on land.[48] They may be fired from hand-held or vehicle mounted devices, from fixed installations or from a ship. They are often powered by a rocket engine or sometimes fired by an explosive charge, since the launching platform is typically stationary or moving slowly. They usually have fins and/or wings forlift and stability, although hyper-velocity or short-ranged missiles may use body lift or fly a ballistic trajectory.[47] Most anti-tank and anti-ship missiles are part of surface-to-surface missile systems.[46]
An anti-satellite weapon (ASAT) is aspace weapon designed to incapacitate or destroysatellites forstrategic ortactical purposes.[49] Although no ASAT system has yet[update] been utilized inwarfare, a few countries have successfully shot down their own satellites to demonstrate their ASAT capabilities in ashow of force.[50][51][52] ASATs have also been used to remove decommissioned satellites.[53] ASAT roles include defensive measures against an adversary's space-based and nuclear weapons, aforce multiplier for a nuclearfirst strike, a countermeasure against an adversary'santi-ballistic missile defense (ABM), anasymmetric counter to a technologically superior adversary, and acounter-value weapon.[54]
^ab"missile, n. and adj.".OED Online.Oxford University Press. 2021. Retrieved17 March 2021.a. An object propelled (either by hand or mechanically) as a weapon at a target b. Military. A long-distance weapon that is self-propelled, and directed either by remote control or automatically, during part or all of its course.
^Crosby, Alfred W. (2002).Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–103.ISBN978-0-5217-9158-8.
^Forbes, James; Rosée comtesse de Montalembert, Eliza (1834).Oriental Memoirs – A Narrative of Seventeen Years Residence in India, Part 68, Volume 1. p. 359. Retrieved26 April 2022.The war rocket used by the Mahrattas which very often annoyed us, is composed of an iron tube eight or ten inches long and nearly two inches in diameter. This destructive weapon is sometimes fixed to a rod iron, sometimes to a straight two-edged sword, but most commonly to a strong bamboo cane four or five feet long with an iron spike projecting beyond the tube to this rod or staff, the tube filled with combustible materials
^abStefanovich, Dmitry; Wright, Timothy (3 August 2021)."Appraising the Hague Code of Conduct". International Institute for Strategic Studies. Retrieved3 November 2024.
^Kosanke, K. L.; Sturman, Barry T.; Winokur, Robert M.; Kosanke, B. J. (October 2012).Encyclopedic Dictionary of Pyrotechnics: (and Related Subjects). Journal of Pyrotechnics.ISBN978-1-88952-621-8.
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