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Minzu (anthropology)

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Chinese concept of community and culture

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InChina, the wordminzu (Chinese:民族;pinyin:mínzú) means a community that inheritsculture (文化) orconsanguinity (血缘). Depending on the context, the word has various meanings, such as "nation", "ethnicity", and "race". In modernChinese languages,minzu has a stronger cultural meaning than racial meaning.

Minzu-based nationalism is associated with nationalism inNortheast Asia andVietnam, usually in the form ofcultural orethnic nationalism, in contrast tostate nationalism.^[1]Minzu-based nationalism inChina andTaiwan is close tomulti-ethnic nationalism.^[2]

Etymology

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Look up民族 in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

In Chinese, the term minzu has several meanings; it can be confused with concepts such as "zhǒngzú" (种族, lit. "race"), "guózú" (国族, lit. "nation"), "zúqún" (族群, lit. "ethnic group"). For example, 民族主义 (pinyin:mínzú zhǔyì, lit. "minzu-ism") means "nationalism", but 民族学 (pinyin:mínzú xué, lit. "minzu-study") means "ethnology".

The term "minzu" is found inXiao Zixian's book 《南齐书·高逸传》 during theLiang dynasty ("今诸华士女, 民族弗革"), and in the book 《太白阴经》 during theTang dynasty ("愚人得之, 以倾宗社, 灭民族"). However, these terms are closer to the meaning of "people" (民众) than they are to today.^[3]^[4]

Minzu is aloanword from Japanese.^[5]^: 109 During theMeji period,Japanese translators rendered "nation", "ethnic group", and "Volk" intominzoku (Japanese:民族) when translating European books, which was introduced to China.^[6]

Zhonghua minzu

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Main article:Zhonghua minzu

Before the1911 Revolution, the members of theChinese Revolutionary Party were hostile to theQing dynasty ("Anti-Qing sentiment") and tried to build anation-state around theHan Chinese; at this time the concept ofZhonghua minzu (中华民族 / 中華民族,zhōnghuá mínzú, lit. "Chinese nation") was about the same meaning withHan minzu (汉民族 / 漢民族,hàn mínzú, lit. "Han nation") orHanzu (汉族 / 漢族,hànzú, "Han ethnic group").

After the 1911 Revolution, the concept of "Five Races Under One Union" was introduced, and laterZhonghua minzu united variousethnic groups in China. Today,Zhonghua minzu is concept is related to multi-ethnic nationalism, and therefore distinct fromHan minzu orHanzu.

Other countries

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民族 is not a word spoken only in China and Japan, and can be used in countries throughoutChinese cultural sphere whereChinese characters are spoken. The "dân tộc" in theVietnamese language, and "민족" in theKorean language are 民族 andlexical cognates.^{[citation needed]}

In the modern Japanese language,minzoku (民族) is mainly used to express "ethnic group", instead "nation" is translated intokokumin (国民).^{[citation needed]}

National symbolism

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In manyNortheast Asian countries, 民族 is often related to officialnational symbol as well.^{[citation needed]}

The word appears inPeople's Republic of China's officialnational anthem ("March of the Volunteers"),Military Anthem of the People's Liberation Army, and theNational Flag Anthem of the Republic of China (Taiwan). InSouth Korea, the word was used in thePledge of Allegiance until 2007.^{[citation needed]}

National liberation movements

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民族, 国民, and 国族 all mean "nation". Among them, 民族 is often used to describe anti-imperialistleft-wing nationalism centered on ethnic identity, especially stateless nationalism; 国民 or 国族, means "nation", which can be established only on the premise of 'state' (国/國), so in Northeast Asia, when it comes to words like "national self-determination" (民族自決,mínzú zìjué) and "national liberation" (民族解放,mínzú jiěfàng), the word "nation[nal]" translates to the 民族, not the 国民 or 国族. Because of this, in Northeast Asia, 'minzu-based nationalism' (民族主義) and 'state-based nationalism' (国族主義, 国民主義 or 国家主義) are applied in different contexts.^{[citation needed]}

From the 1930s to 1945, the Japanese imperialists proclaimed the idea of "national liberation" (民族自決,minzu jiefang) and "national self-determination" (民族解放,minzu zijue) to encourage the separation ofNortheast China andNorth China from the rest of the country. This is also related to local ethnic nationalism; minzu may mean "nation" but may also mean "ethnic group".^[7]

InPostwar Japan,liberal nationalists likeMasao Maruyama emphasized "国民主義" (kokumin shugi, lit. "state-based nationalism" or "civic nationalism"^[8]) while left-wing nationalists who supportedMarxism andanti-imperialism emphasized "民族主義" (minzoku shugi, lit. "ethnic nationalism").^[9]

Today, inSouth Korea, left-liberals tend to valueminjok (theKorean race) over the North–South ideological and political divide. In a broader sense, left-liberals embrace "ethnic nationalism" (民族主義, Korean: 민족주의); the notion that sharing the same bloodline is superior to temporary national partition. Conservatives on the other hand support "regime-based nationalism" (國民主義 or 國家主義, Korean: 국민주의 or 국가주의), which puts emphasis on being South Korean and stresses the differences in social and political values between the twoKoreas.^[10]^[11]

Hong Kong nationalists reject the concept of "Chineseminzu" (中華民族) and define themselves as "HongKongerminzu" (香港民族). "Hong Kong [ethnic] nationalism" (民族主義 or 香港民族主義) is often opposed toChinese state nationalism (國家主義 or 中國國家主義),^[12] because many Chinese state nationalists support reducing Hong Kong's autonomy.^[13] DuringTaiwan'sKMT one-party dictatorship, theKuomintang (KMT) defendedChinese state nationalism, in opposition to which liberal/progressives, including theDemocratic Progressive Party (DPP), defendedTaiwanese-based "liberal [ethnic] nationalism" (自由民族主義); moderate Taiwanese [ethnic] nationalism has an impact on Taiwanese politics even after democratization.^[14]

When modernVietnamese nationalism was emerging during theFrench Indochina period, "nation" was defined as bothdân tộc (民族) andquốc dân (國民).Dân tộc was commonly used in discourse, including among left-wing circles such as theIndochinese Communist Party and theTrotskyists.Quốc dân was also employed by nationalist groups, from centre-left to right-wing, such asViệt-Nam Quốc-dân Đảng,Tự-lực Văn-đoàn, andĐại-Việt Quốc-dân Đảng, signifying thecivic role and participation of the populace in nation-building. Since theSecond World War, another term,quốc gia (國家), also gained popularity, as seen in names likeĐại-Việt Quốc-gia Liên-minh,Việt-Nam Quốc-gia Độc-lập Đảng, andMặt-trận Quốc-gia Liên-hiệp.^{[citation needed]}

In the early years of theDemocratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), the termquốc dân was also used to appeal to a broader audience. Subsequently, the national communists (the DRV, theViet Minh, and theViet Cong) settled on the termdân tộc, while the anti-communist nationalists (theState of Vietnam and, later, theRepublic of Vietnam) aligned themselves with the termquốc gia. The termschủ nghĩa dân tộc andchủ nghĩa quốc gia thus came to represent two strands of Vietnamese nationalism. Additionally, in matters concerning ethnic minorities, North Vietnam adopted the same termdân tộc (民族), whereas South Vietnam preferredsắc tộc (色族) to denoteethnicity.^{[citation needed]}

Racial pride

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Some Northeast Asia's nationalists value the 'blood purity' when defining 民族, showingracial nationalism.^[15]Yamato nationalism duringEmpire of Japan, and today's North Korea'sJuche are linked to racial nationalism.^[16]

According to some scholars, Northeast Asia's "nationalism" (民族主義) hasright Hegelians and 19th century notions ofblood and soil.^[17]

Three Principles of the People

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Main article:Three Principles of the People § Mínzú or Nationalism

"Mínzú" (民族, nationalism) is a core principle of theThree Principles of the People, along with "Mínquán" (民權,democracy) and "Mínshēng" (民生,socialism).

References

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^Hankwon Kim (2022).Cultural and State Nationalism: South Korean and Japanese Relations with China. American University.
^Gunter Schubert; Jens Damm (2012).Taiwanese Identity in the 21st Century: Domestic, Regional and Global Perspectives. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 270.In the multi-ethnic nationalism approach, the Taiwanese nation is conceptualized as a harmonious, democratic and ...
^邸永君. “民族”一词见于《南齐书》. 民族研究. 2004, (3): 98–99.
^茹莹. 汉语"民族"一词在我国的最早出现. 世界民族. 2001, (6): 1.
^Qian, Ying (2024).Revolutionary Becomings: Documentary Media in Twentieth-Century China. New York, NY:Columbia University Press.ISBN 9780231204477.
^Shiyuan Hao (30 November 2015).How the Communist Party of China Manages the Issue of Nationality: An Evolving Topic. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 39.ISBN 978-3-662-48462-3.... minzu to translate the German word volk and the English words ethnos and nation. After the Japanese philosopher Enryou Inoue founded the magazine Nihonjin in 1888, the term minzu became widely used in Japan and influenced the whole news ...
^Wei Wang; Lisong Jiang (July 19, 2021).Ethnic Identity of the Kam People in Contemporary China: Government Versus Local Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. p. 4.ISBN 978-1-000-41288-8.
^Andrea Castiglioni; Carina Roth; Fabio Rambelli (12 November 2020).Defining Shugendo: Critical Studies on Japanese Mountain Religion.Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN 978-1-350-17941-7.... civic nationalism (kokuminshugi 国民主義) in an attempt to forcibly construct the identity of Japanese society (Hayashi 2010: 34). ...
^Gayle, Curtis Anderson (2003-08-29).Marxist History and Postwar Japanese Nationalism. Routledge.doi:10.4324/9780203217771.ISBN 978-1-134-43159-5.
^Cloudy forecast for Moon’s ‘Sunshine Policy 2.0’Archived 31 October 2023 at theWayback Machine East Asia Forum (2017. 07. 20). "In South Korean politics, liberal political parties often support a policy of engagement with North Korea. This is because left-wing politicians tend to value miunjok (the Korean race) over the North–South ideological and political divide. In a broader sense, liberals embrace ethno-nationalism; the notion that sharing the same bloodline is superior to temporary national partition. Conservatives on the other hand support regime-based nationalism, which puts emphasis on being South Korean and stresses the differences in social and political values between the two Koreas."
^Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 28, 2016)."Still the Unloved Republic".Sthele Press. RetrievedJune 26, 2019.... Someone who is asked by a pollster whether he is prouder of the Taehan minguk or of the minjok therefore knows which answer is better, more progressive-sounding. In all likelihood he is not prouder of the republic than of his Koreanness. One should be wary of polls on this issue that were not conducted precisely and clearly.
^Daniel Cetrà; Coree Brown Swan (2022).State and Majority Nationalism in Plurinational States.Taylor & Francis. p. 135.... Hong Kong nationalism, or at least opposition to Chinese state nationalism.
^Chang, Che (1 December 2020)."The Nazi Inspiring China's Communists".The Atlantic.
^Glenn Drover; Graham Johnson; Julia Lai Po-Wah Tao (2001).Regionalism and Subregionalism in East Asia: The Dynamics of China. Nova Science. p. 101.ISBN 978-1-56072-872-6.In response to the rise of 'liberal ethno-nationalism' and the DPP, it has increasingly promoted the discourse and practices of a 'Taiwanized' KMT.
^Ko-wu Huang, Max (15 March 2008).The Meaning of Freedom: Yan Fu and Origins of Chinese Liberalism. Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. p. 97.doi:10.2307/j.ctv1x0kc5b.ISBN 978-962-996-278-4.JSTOR j.ctv1x0kc5b.S2CID 261749245.... racial nationalism (minzu zhuyi 民族主義) was characteristic of any race, but he asked: "Will racial nationalism strengthen our race? In my opinion, it definitely will not."...
^B. R. Myers (2010).The Cleanest Race.
^Kelly, Robert E. (24 May 2010)."More on Asian Multiculturalism: 5 Masters Theses to be Written". Retrieved10 February 2024.Northeast Asians (NEA – Chinese, Koreans, Japanese) strike me as quite nationalistic, and nationalism up here is still tied up in right-Hegelian, 19th century notions of blood and soil.

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Related	Minzu (anthropology)

Ethnic groups in China

Sino-Tibetan

Sinitic	Han Chinese subgroups Hui Bai Caijia Chuanqing Longjia Waxiang
Lolo-Burmese	Yi Hani Lisu Lahu Nakhi Achang Nu Jino Akha Bisu Kucong Laomian Laopin Mosuo Qixingmin
Qiangic	Qiang Pumi Baima Gyalrong
Tibetic	Tibetans Monpa Sherpa Golok
Others	Tujia Jingpo Derung Lhoba Deng

Others

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From elsewhere	Africans Guangzhou Hong Kong Americans Hong Kong Australians Hong Kong Britons Hong Kong Canadians French Hong Kong Nigerians Poles Portuguese Macau Russians Albazinians Harbin Hong Kong Shanghai Ukrainians
See also	Demographics of China Immigration to Hong Kong Immigration to Macau History of the Jews in China Hong Kong Kaifeng Underoccupied developments in China Illegal immigration