Devastated theMinoan settlements ofAkrotiri, the island of Thera, communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands, and the coast ofCrete with relatedearthquakes andtsunamis.
Geological evidence shows the Thera volcano erupted numerous times over several hundred thousand years before the Minoan eruption. In a repeating process, the volcano would violently erupt, then eventually collapse into a roughly circular seawater-filledcaldera, with numerous small islands forming the circle. The caldera would slowly refill with magma, building a new volcano, which erupted and then collapsed in an ongoing cyclical process.[14]
Immediately before the Minoan eruption, the walls of the caldera formed a nearly continuous ring of islands, with the only entrance between Thera and the tiny island ofAspronisi.[14] This cataclysmic eruption was centered on a small island just north of the existing island ofNea Kameni in the centre of the then-existing caldera. The northern part of the caldera was refilled by thevolcanic ash and lava, then collapsed again.
The magnitude of the eruption, particularly the submarine pyroclastic flows, has been difficult to estimate because the majority of the erupted products were deposited in the sea. Together, these challenges result in considerable uncertainty regarding the volume of the Minoan eruption, with estimates ranging between 13–86 km3 (3.1–20.6 cu mi) DRE.[15][16]
According to the latest analysis of marine sediments and seismic data gathered during ocean research expeditions from 2015 to 2019, the estimated volume of the material expelled during the volcanic eruption ranges from 28–41 km3 (6.7–9.8 cu mi) DRE.[5]
The study revealed that the initial Plinian eruption was the most voluminous phase, ejecting 14–21 km3 (3.4–5.0 cu mi) magma and accounting for half of total erupted materials. This was followed by 3–4 km3 (0.72–0.96 cu mi) DRE co-ignimbrite fall, 5–9 km3 (1.2–2.2 cu mi) DRE pyroclastic flows and 5–7 km3 (1.2–1.7 cu mi) DRE intra-caldera deposits.[5]
On Santorini, there is a 60 m (200 ft) thick layer of whitetephra that overlies the soil clearly delineating the ground level before the eruption. This layer has three distinct bands that indicate the different phases of the eruption.[17] Studies have identified four major eruption phases, and one minor precursory tephra fall. The thinness of the first ash layer, along with the lack of noticeable erosion of that layer by winter rains before the next layer was deposited, indicate that the volcano gave the local population a few months' warning. Since no human remains have been found at the Akrotiri site, this preliminary volcanic activity probably caused the island's population to flee. It is also suggested that several months before the eruption, Santorini experienced one or more earthquakes, which damaged the local settlements.[18][19][20]
Early phase of Late-Bronze-Age volcano eruption (~ 1500 BC), southern border of the Caldera island. The lower layer ofpumice is finer, almost white and without rock intrusions.
Intense magmatic activity of the first major phase (BO1/Minoan A)[21] of the eruption deposited up to 7 m (23 ft) ofpumice and ash, with a minor lithic component, southeast and east. Archaeological evidence indicated burial of man-made structures with limited damage. The second (BO2/Minoan B) and third (BO3/Minoan C) eruption phases involvedpyroclastic surges andlava fountaining, as well as the possible generation oftsunamis. Man-made structures not buried during Minoan A were completely destroyed. The third phase was also characterized by the initiation of caldera collapse. The fourth, and last, major phase (BO4/Minoan D) was marked by varied activity: lithic-rich base surge deposits,lava flows,lahar floods, and co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits. This phase was characterized by the completion of caldera collapse, which producedmegatsunamis.[21][22]
Although the fracturing process is not yet known, the altitudinal statistical analysis indicates that the caldera had formed just before the eruption. The area of the island was smaller, and the southern and eastern coastlines appeared regressed. During the eruption, the landscape was covered by the pumice sediments. In some places, the coastline vanished under thicktuff depositions. In others, recent coastlines were extended towards the sea. After the eruption, the geomorphology of the island was characterized by an intense erosional phase during which the pumice was progressively removed from the higher altitudes to the lower ones.[23]
The eruption also generated 35 to 150 m (115 to 492 ft) high tsunamis that devastated the northern coastline of Crete, 110 km (68 mi) away. The tsunami affected coastal towns such asAmnisos, where building walls were knocked out of alignment. On the island ofAnafi, 27 km (17 mi) to the east, ash layers 3 m (10 ft) deep have been found, as well as pumice layers on slopes 250 m (820 ft)above sea level.
Elsewhere in the Mediterranean are pumice deposits that could have been sent by the Thera eruption. Ash layers in cores drilled from the seabed and from lakes inTurkey show that the heaviest ashfall was towards the east and northeast of Santorini. The ash found on Crete is now known to have been from a precursory phase of the eruption, some weeks or months before the main eruptive phases, and it would have had little impact on the island.[25] Santorini ash deposits were at one time claimed to have been found in theNile Delta,[26] but this is now known to be a misidentification.[27][28]
The Minoan eruption is an importantmarker horizon for theBronze Age chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean realm. It provides a fixed point for aligning the entire chronology of the second millennium BC in the Aegean, as evidence of the eruption is found throughout the region. Yet, archaeological dating based ontypological sequencing and theEgyptian chronology is significantly younger than the radiocarbon age of the Minoan eruption, by roughly a century. This age discrepancy has resulted in a fierce debate about whether there is an upheaval in the archaeological synchronization between the Aegean and Egypt.[29]
Archaeologists developed the Late Bronze Age chronologies of easternMediterranean cultures by analyzingdesign styles of artifacts found in each archaeological layer.[30] If the type of artifacts can be accurately assigned, then the layer's position in a chronological order can be determined. This is known assequence dating orseriation. In Aegean chronology, however, the frequent exchange of objects and styles enables relative chronology to be compared with the absolute chronology of Egypt, so absolute dates could be determined in the Aegean.
Since the Minoan eruption has been conclusively placed in late/endLate Minoan IA (LM-IA) in the Crete chronology, late/endLate Helladic I (LH-I) in the mainland chronology,[31][32][33] the contention concerns which Egyptian period was contemporaneous with LM-IA and LM-IB. Decades of intensive archaeological work andseriation on Crete in the last century had confidently correlated the late LM-IA withDynasty XVIII in Egypt and the end of LM-IA at the start ofThutmose III.[32] Stone vessels discovered in theShaft Graves in LH-I are also of theNew Kingdom type. Multiple archaeological sites of Theran pumice workshop used by the local inhabitants are only found in the New Kingdom strata. A milk bowl on Santorini used before the volcanic eruption has a New Kingdom pottery style.[29] An Egyptian inscription on theAhmose Tempest Stele recorded an extraordinary cataclysm resembling the Minoan eruption.[34] Taken together, the archaeological evidence points to an eruption date after the accession ofAhmose I. The year of accession based on the conventional Egyptian chronology and radiocarbon-based chronology is either 1550 BC[35] and 1570–1544 BC (IntCal04)[36] or 1569–1548 BC (IntCal20).[37] The archaeological evidence argues for a Theran eruption date between circa 1550 and 1480 BC.[38]
Proponents of an earlier date argue that Aegean-Egyptian pottery correlation allows considerable flexibility. Several other archaeological interpretations of LM-IA and LM-IB pottery differ from the "traditional" and could be consistent with a much earlier beginning time for LM-IA and LM-IB.[39][40][41] Pottery synchronisms were also assessed to be less secure before theLM-IIIAI/Amenhotep III period.[42] Pumice in workshop and the inscription on the Tempest Stele have been argued to only reflect thelower bound of the eruption age. The date of the production of pottery with the Santorini milk bowl style in other regions has not been determined and could pre-date the Minoan eruption. The chronology of stone vessel styles during this critical period is lacking.[43][44]
A major cause ofinaccuracy in raw radiocarbon dates is fluctuation in the level of atmospheric radiocarbon. Hence, raw dates are adjusted withcalibration curves which are periodically updated by international researchers. Derived calibrated calendar date ranges are highly dependent on how accurately the calibration curve represents radiocarbon levels for the time period. As of 2022, the most updated calibration curve is IntCal20.[45] Early radiocarbon dates in the 1970s with calibration were already showing massive age disagreement and were initially discarded as unreliable by the archaeological community.[40] In the following decades, the range of possible eruption dates narrowed significantly with improved calibration, analytical precision, statistical methods, and sample treatment. Radiocarbon dating has built a strong case for an eruption date in the late 17th century BC. The table below summarizes the history and results of radiocarbon dating of volcanicdestruction layer with pre-2018 calibration curves:
List of radiocarbon dates with calibration curve published before 2018
Tau boundary function on the 28 samples from VDL (2)
Wiggle-matching of olive tree buried alive in pumice layer (3)
In 2018, a team led by tree ring scientist reported a possible offset of a few decades in the previous IntCal calibration curves during the period 1660–1540 BC. The resulting new calibration curve allowed previous raw radiocarbon dates to be calibrated to encompass a substantial part of the 16th century BC, making it possible for radiocarbon dates to be compatible with archaeological evidence.[55] The measured offset was then confirmed by other laboratories across the world and incorporated into the most updated calibration curve IntCal20.[57][58][59] In the same year, study ofbomb peak further questioned the validity of wiggle-matching of the olive branch because the radiocarbon dates of the outermost branch layer could differ by up to a few decades caused by growth cessation, then the olive branch could also pre-date Thera by decades.[60]
In 2020, speculation of regional offset specific to Mediterranean context in all calibration curves was reported based on measurements made on juniper wood atGordion. If the regional offset is genuine, then calibration based on the regional dataset, Hd GOR, would place the eruption date back to 17th century BC.[61] Others have argued that these site-specific offsets are already incorporated into the IntCal20 prediction interval since it is constructed from a much wider range of locations and any locational variation is of similar magnitude to the inter-laboratory variation.[62][63]
While the refined calibration curve IntCal20 does not rule out a 17th-century BC eruption date, it does shift the probable range of the eruption date to include the majority of 16th century BC, offering a way to at least mitigate the long-standing age disagreement. However, the exact year of eruption has not been settled. The table below summarizes the dating results:
List of volcanic destruction layer (VDL) radiocarbon dates with calibration curve published after 2018
Bayesian model of sequence of samples from before, during and after eruption but more comprehensive to include samples from VDL, tsunami and distal fallout from across southern Aegean region
An eruption of Theran magnitude is expected to leave a detectable signal in various environmental records likeice core andtree ring. Petrologic constraints on Minoan magma yields a range of 0.3–35.9 trillion grams of sulfur release. The higher end of the estimate could cause severeclimatic change and leave detectable signals in ice cores and tree rings.[68] Notably,tree ring dating allows extremely precise dating to the exact calendar year of each ring with virtually no age uncertainty, and from properties of the annual tree ringslocal climate record could be reconstructed down to sub-annual precision.
In 1987, a major Greenland sulfate spike in 1644 ± 20 BC in ice core chronology was hypothesized to be caused by the Minoan eruption based on the early radiocarbon results of Hammer et al.[46] In 1988, a major environmental disruption and extreme global-cooling/frost-ring in 1627 ± 0 BC were also revealed through precisely datedfrost ring and too were hypothesized to be related to Minoan eruption.[69][70][71]
Archaeologists who preferred a late 16th century BC eruption date were neither convinced by the 1644 ± 20 BC sulfate spike nor by the 1627 BC frost ring, because evidence of causality between the two events and Minoan eruption was absent.[32]
Since 2003, multiple independent studies of major elements and trace elements of volcanic ash retrieved from the 1644 ± 20 BC sulfate layer failed to match the ash to that of Santorini[25] but all attributed the ash to another large eruption during this period,Mount Aniakchak, thus ruling out Minoan eruption as the cause of the sulfate spike.[72][73][74][75] In 2019, a revision of the Greenland ice-core chronology was proposed based on synchronization of the frost-ring data and the major sulfate spike, and the revised date for the Aniakchak eruption was shifted to 1628 BC.[76] The Greenland ice core chronology offset was independently confirmed by other teams[75][77] and adopted into Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2021 (GICC21).[78] The 1627 BC extreme global cooling was then conveniently explained by the major Aniakchak eruption without invoking Thera. An eruption date of 1627 BC is also no longer supported by radiocarbon evidence with the most recent calibration curve IntCal20.[75]
In light of much younger radiocarbon dates and revised ice core chronology, several possible ice core and tree ring signals in the 17th and 16th century BC have been proposed.[75][79][80] The list below summarizes the tree ring and ice core signals that may have been caused by the Minoan eruption:
List of proposed Minoan eruption dates suggested by environmental anomalies
Date
Environmental context
Records
Ref
1681–1673 BC
Tree ring
increases of sulfur, calcium, and rare earth elements in Mediterranean tree ring 857, possibly caused by volcanic eruption in this region
one of largest sulfate spikes recorded in Greenland in the last 4,000 years, estimated 50 trillion grams of sulfur; frost-damaged ring in 1653 BC followed by ring-width minima in 1652 BC
large sulfate spike, estimated 22 trillion grams of sulfur; ring growth reduced in 1560 BC; calcium depletion in Mediterranean tree ring in 1560 BC possibly caused by volcanic eruption in this region
The date of Minoan eruption does not necessarily have to be in one of the years listed in the table, because the eruption may not have been environmentally impactful enough to leave any detectable signal.[66]
In addition, astalagmite from Turkey shows bromine peaks at 1621 ± 25 BC, molybdenum at 1617 ± 25 BC and sulfur at 1589 ± 25 BC. The authors interpreted that all three peaks were caused by a single volcanic eruption in the Mediterranean region and the time difference was related to differences in their retention rates.[83] Others have suggested that the sulfur peak may have been related to the 1561 BC chemical anomaly recorded in Mediterranean tree rings.[55]
The eruption devastated the settlement atAkrotiri on Santorini, which was entombed in a layer ofpumice andash. Evidence at the site suggests that survivors returned and attempted to recover their possessions and perhaps to bury victims.[84]
AMarine Style vase, typical of the Late Minoan IB period that followed the eruption of Thera.
The eruption was felt atMinoan sites on Crete. In northeastern Crete, earthquakes destroyed sites includingPetras, while 9 meter high tsunamis swept over coastal sites such asPalaikastro.[85] Ash and pumice fell across the island, where it was sometimes collected and stored.[85][86][87]
After the eruption, the Minoans quickly recovered, and the subsequent period is considered the zenith of Minoan culture.[88][89][90] Many affected sites were rebuilt, including Petras and Palaikastro, at the latter of which, new buildings were constructed using high qualityashlar masonry. NewMinoan palaces were constructed atZakros andPhaistos.[91][87] However, other sites fell into decline, includingGalatas andKommos.[90][85][92]
The longer term impact of the eruption remains a matter of debate. The immediate aftermath saw a number of puzzling cultural changes including the filling in oflustral basins.[90] In their bookThe Troubled Island, Driessen and MacDonald argued that the richness of the post-eruption material culture masked deep economic and political problems that eventually led to the collapse of Neopalatial society. Subsequent evidence suggests that this was not a general pattern across the island.[93][94]
A volcanic winter from an eruption in the late 17th century BC has been claimed by some researchers to correlate with entries in later Chinese records documenting the collapse of the semi-legendaryXia dynasty inChina. According to theBamboo Annals, the collapse of the dynasty and the rise of theShang dynasty, approximately dated to 1618 BC, were accompanied by "yellow fog, a dim sun, thenthree suns, frost in July, famine, and the withering of allfive cereals".[13]
Apocalyptic rainstorms, which devastated much ofEgypt, and were described on the Tempest Stele ofAhmose I, have been attributed to short-term climatic changes caused by the Theran eruption.[12][95][96] The dates and regnal dates of Ahmose I are in some dispute with Egyptologists (leaving aside alternate chronologies). Proposed reigns range from 1570 to 1546 BC to 1539–1514 BC. A radiocarbon dating of his mummy produced a mean value of 1557 BC. In any case this would only provide an overlap with the later estimates of eruption date.[97]
Alternatively, if the eruption occurred in theSecond Intermediate Period, the absence of Egyptian records of the eruption could be caused by the general disorder in Egypt around that time.
While it has been argued that the damage attributed to these storms may have been caused by an earthquake following the Thera eruption, it has also been suggested that it was caused during a war with theHyksos, and the storm reference is merely a metaphor for chaos upon which the Pharaoh was attempting to impose order.[98] Documents such asHatshepsut'sSpeos Artemidos depict storms, but are clearly figurative, not literal. Research indicates that the Speos Artemidos stele is a reference to her overcoming the powers of chaos and darkness.[98]
The eruption of Thera and volcanic fallout may have inspired the myths of theTitanomachy inHesiod'sTheogony.[99] The story may have absorbed elements of westernAnatolian folk memory, especially those circulating in the eastern Aegean. In this sense, the Hesiodic version of the myth could have incorporated eastern influences as the narrative tradition took shape in mainland Greece, further west.
Hesiod's lines have been compared with volcanic activity, citingZeus's thunderbolts asvolcanic lightning, the boiling earth and sea as a breach of themagma chamber, immense flame and heat as evidence ofphreatic explosions, among many other descriptions.[100]
Spyridon Marinatos, the discoverer of the Akrotiri archaeological site, suggested that the Minoan eruption is reflected inPlato's story ofAtlantis. This view remains prevalent in popular culture, as reflected in TV programs such as BBC'sAtlantis. However, this view is not supported by current scholarship.[101][102][103][104][86]
Geologist Barbara J. Sivertsen seeks to establish a link between the eruption of Santorini (c. 1600 BC) andthe Exodus of theIsraelites fromEgypt in theBible.[20]
^Paris, Raphael, et al., (2022)."A Minoan and a Neolithic tsunami recorded in coastal sediments of Ios Island, Aegean Sea, Greece", in:Marine Geology, Volume 452, October 2022, Abstract: "...tsunami deposits on the coasts of Ios Island, Aegean Sea, Greece...marine sediments and pumices from the ~1600 BC Minoan eruption of Santorini volcano. This is the first evidence of the Minoan tsunami in the Cycladic Islands North of Santorini."
^abFoster, Karen Polinger; et al. (1996). "Texts, Storms, and the Thera Eruption".Journal of Near Eastern Studies.55 (1):1–14.doi:10.1086/373781.S2CID162024484.
^abPang, K. D.; et al. (1989). "Climatic and Hydrologic Extremes in Early Chinese History: Possible Causes and Dates".Eos.70: 1095.
^Gournelos, Theodoros; Evelpidou, Niki; Vassilopoulos, Andreas; Chartidou, Konstantia (2008). "Geomorphological Study of Thera". In Vassilopoulos, Andreas (ed.).Geoinformation Technologies for Geocultural Landscapes. CRC Press. p. 247.ISBN978-0-415-46859-6.
^Heiken, G; McCoy, F (1990). "Precursory Activity to the Minoan Eruption, Thera, Greece".Thera and the Aegean World III, Vol 2. London: The Thera Foundation. pp. 79–88.
^abSivertsen, Barbara J. (2009). "The Minoan Eruption".The Parting of the Sea: How Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Plagues Shaped the Story of the Exodus.Princeton University Press. p. 25.ISBN978-0-691-13770-4.
^Savino, John; Jones, Marie D. (2007). "Aftereffects of Volcanoes".Supervolcano. Career Press. p. 88.ISBN978-1-56414-953-4.
^Gournelos, T; Evelpidou, N; Vassilopolous, A; Konstantia, C (2008). "Geomorphological Study of Thera and the Akrotiri Archeological Site". In A Vassilopoulos; N Evelpidou; O Bender; A Krek (eds.).Geoinformation technologies for geocultural landscapes: European perspective. CRC Press. pp. 237–54.ISBN978-0-415-46859-6.
^abTime's up! : dating the Minoan eruption of Santorini: acts of the Minoan eruption chronology workshop, Sandbjerg November 2007, initiated by Jan Heinemeier & Walter L. Friedrich. Walter L. Friedrich, Jan Heinemeier, David Warburton. Athens: Danish Institute at Athens. 2009.ISBN978-87-7934-652-9.OCLC820828357.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^Kemp, Barry J. (1980).Minoan pottery in second millennium Egypt. R. S. Merrillees, Elmar Edel, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut. Abteilung Kairo. Mainz am Rhein: P. von Zabern.ISBN3-8053-0429-3.OCLC7506121.
^abcYounger, John; Rehak, Paul (2008). "The Material Culture of Neopalatial Crete". In Shelmerdine, Cynthia (ed.).The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press. p. 140.doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521814447.007.ISBN978-0-521-89127-1.
^McEnroe, John C. (2010).Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 81–82.
^Davis, Jack (2008). "Minoan Crete and the Aegean Islands". In Shelmerdine, Cynthia (ed.).The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press. p. 205.doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521814447.009.ISBN978-0-521-89127-1.
^McEnroe, John C. (2010).Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 82–83, 113.
^McEnroe, John C. (2010).Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 113.
^McEnroe, John C. (2010).Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 81–82, 113.
^Driessen, Jan; MacDonald, Colin (1997).The Troubled Island: Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption. Peeters.ISBN978-90-429-2416-1.
^Luce, John Victor (1969).The end of Atlantis: New light on an old legend. New Aspects of Antiquity. London: Thames & Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-39005-4.[page needed]
^Marinatos, Spyridon (1972).Some Words about the Legend at Atlantis (2nd ed.). Athens: C. Papachrysanthou.
^Neer, Richard (2012).Art and Archaeology of the Greek World. Thames and Hudson. p. 37.ISBN978-0-500-05166-5."...popular associations of the eruption with a legend of Atlantis should be dismissed...nor is there good evidence to suggest that the eruption...brought about the collapse of Minoan Crete
^Manning, Stuart (2012). "Eruption of Thera/Santorini". In Cline, Eric (ed.).The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 457–454.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0034.ISBN978-0-19-987360-9.Marinatos (1939) famously suggested that the eruption might even have caused the destruction of Minoan Crete (also Page 1970). Although this simple hypothesis has been negated by the findings of excavation and other research since the late 1960s... which demonstrate that the eruption occurred late in the Late Minoan IA ceramic period, whereas the destructions of the Cretan palaces and so on are some time subsequent (late in the following Late Minoan IB ceramic period)
Mühlenbruch, Tobias (2017). "The absolute dating of the volcanic eruption of Santorini/Thera (periferia South Aegean/GR) – an alternative perspective".Praehistorische Zeitschrift.92 (1–2):92–107.doi:10.1515/pz-2017-0004.S2CID134246887.
Notti, Erika (2010). "The Theran Epigraphic Corpus of Linear A: Geographical and Chronological Implications".Pasiphae (4):93–96.
Notti, Erika (2021). "Writing in Late Bronze Age Thera. Further Observations on the Theran Corpus of Linear A".Pasiphae (15).ISSN2037-738X.
Warren PM (2006). "The date of the Thera eruption". In Czerny E, Hein I, Hunger H, Melman D, Schwab A (eds.).Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 149. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Peeters. pp. 2: 305–21.ISBN90-429-1730-X.
