The nameMindanao is derived from a compound word in theMaguindanao language:min, a past tense verb prefix, anddanao, meaning 'lake'. Together, they translate to 'land of where the lakes are found'. This name is also associated to theMaguindanaon people, where theSultanate of Maguindanao once held significant influence and where lakes with varying depths are also common among the provinces of Mindanao.[2]
Archaeological findings on the island point to evidence of human activity dating back about ten thousand years. Around 1500 BC,Austronesian people spread throughout the Philippines.
TheSubanon are believed to have settled in theZamboanga Peninsula during theNeolithic era c. 4500–2000 BC.[clarification needed][10][better source needed] Evidence of stone tools inZamboanga del Norte may indicate a lateNeolithic presence. Ceramic burial jars, both unglazed and glazed, Chineseceladons, gold ornaments, beads, and bracelets have been found in caves. Many of the ceramic objects are from theYuan andMing periods. Evidently, there was a long history of trade between the Subanon and the Chinese.
In theclassic epoch of Philippine history (900 AD onwards), the people of Mindanao were heavily exposed toHindu andBuddhist influence and beliefs from Indonesia and Malaysia. Indianizedabugida scripts such asKawi andbaybayin were introduced from Java and an extinct intermediate from Sulawesi or Borneo respectively. Cultural icons of thesarong (known asmalong orpatadyong), thepudongturban,silk, andbatik andikat weaving and dyeing methods were introduced. Artifacts found from this era include a goldenkinnara, agolden image believed by some to be a Tara, and aGanesha pendant. These cultural traits passed from Mindanao into theVisayas andLuzon, but were subsequently lost or heavily modified after the Spanish arrival in the 16th century.
Hindu-Buddhist cultural influence took root in coastal settlements, syncretizing with indigenousanimist beliefs and customs among the tribes of the interior. TheButuan Rajahnate, a Hinduized kingdom mentioned in Chinese records as a tributary state in the 10th century, was concentrated along the northeastern coast ofButuan Bay.[11][failed verification] The Rajahnate ofSanmalan in Zamboanga, was also in Mindanao. TheDarangen epic of the Maranao people harkens back to this era as the most complete local version of theRamayana. The Maguindanao at this time also had strong Hindu beliefs, evidenced by the Ladya Lawana (RajahRavana) epic saga that survives to the present, albeit highly Islamized from the 17th century onward.
Approximate historical extent of the Muslim sultanates ofSulu,Maguindanao and Lanao in the 19th century
The spread of Islam in the Philippines began in the 14th century, mostly through the influence of Muslim merchants from the westernMalay Archipelago. The firstmosque in the Philippines was built in the mid-14th century in the town ofSimunul,Tawi-Tawi.[11] Around the 16th century, the Muslim sultanates ofSulu,Lanao andMaguindanao were established from formerly Hindu-Buddhist rajahnates.
As Islam colonised Mindanao, the natives of the sultanates had to either convert to Islam or pay tribute to their new Muslim rulers. The largest of the Muslim polities in mainland Mindanao was theSultanate of Maguindanao, which controlled the southern floodplains of theRio Grande de Mindanao and most of the coastal area ofIllana Bay,Moro Gulf,Sarangani Bay andDavao Gulf. The name Mindanao was derived from this sultanate. But most of Mindanao remained animist, especially theLumad people in the interior. Most of the northern, eastern, and southern coastal regions inhabited byVisayans (Surigaonon andButuanon) and other groups were later converted to Christianity by the Spanish. Mindanao was then embroiled between a conflict with the Boholano (Visayan)Dapitan Kingdom and the MoluccanSultanate of Ternate. Dapitan which was originally at Bohol was destroyed by an expeditionary force from the Ternate Sultanate and Dapitenyos were forced to relocate to Northern Mindanao where they waged war against the Sultanate of Lanao and established a new Dapitan there.[12] Mindanaoans then spread out of Mindanao across Southeast Asia, Historian William Henry Scott, quoting the Portuguese manuscript Summa Orientalis, noted thatMottama inBurma (Myanmar) had a large presence of merchants from Mindanao.[13]
ChristianFilipinos, who served under the Spanish Army, searching forMoro rebels during theSpanish–Moro conflict, c. 1887. The insurgency in Mindanao can be traced to the early 16th century.Two Spanish missionariesbaptizing a Moro convert toCatholicism, circa 1890.
In 1521 Antonio Pigafetta wrote an account of reaching 'Maingdano.' He was with Magellan on the first circumnavigation of the globe and sailing for the king of Spain.[14]
On February 2, 1543,Ruy López de Villalobos was the first Spaniard to reach Mindanao.[15] He called the island"Caesarea Caroli" after Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (and I of Spain). Shortly after Spain's colonization of Cebu, it moved on to colonize theCaraga region in northeast Mindanao and discovered a significant Muslim presence on the island. Over time a number of tribes in Mindanao converted to Catholicism and built settlements and forts throughout the coastal regions. These settlements endured despite attacks from neighboring Muslim sultanates. The most heavily fortified of them, apart from a short period in 1662 when Spain sent soldiers from the city to Manila after a threat of invasion from the Chinese generalKoxinga, wasZamboanga City[16][unreliable source] which was settled by soldiers from Peru and Mexico.[17] The sultanates resisted Spanish pressure and attempts to convert them to Christianity during this period.[18] TheSultanate of Ternate of the Maluku Islands formed a close alliance with the sultanates of Mindanao, especiallyMaguindanao.[19] Ternate regularly sent military reinforcements to Mindanao to assist the local sultanates in their war against Spanish-controlled Manila.[20][better source needed]
By the late 18th century Spain had geographic dominance over the island, having established settlements and forts in most of Mindanao, includingZamboanga City andMisamis Occidental to the northwest,Iligan City,Misamis Oriental,Bukidnon, andCamiguin Island to the north,Surigao and Agusan in theCaraga region to the east, andDavao in the island's gulf coast. Spain continued to engage in battles with Muslim sultanates until the end of the 19th century.[16]
At the same time as the Philippine revolution against Spain, theRepublic of Zamboanga rose as a revolutionary state in Mindanao before it was absorbed by the oncoming Americans.
In the early 1900s the Commonwealth government (led by Americans) encouraged citizens from Luzon and Visayas to migrate to Mindanao. Consisting mostly ofIlocanos, Cebuanos, andIlonggos. Settlers streaming intoSoccsksargen led to the displacement of theBlaan andTboli tribes.[citation needed]
In April 1942 Mindanao, along with the rest of the Philippines, officially enteredWorld War II afterJapanese soldiers invaded key cities in the islands.[25] Many towns and cities were burned to the ground in Mindanao, most notably Davao City, Zamboanga City, Lanao, Cagayan de Oro, Iligan City, and Butuan.[26] In the months of April and May 1942, Japanese forces defeated US troops commanded byWilliam F. Sharp andGuy Fort, in a battle that started atMalabang (a town close toGandamatu Macadar, Lanao) and ended close to the town ofGanassi, Lanao. Davao City was among the earliest to be occupied by the invading Japanese forces. They immediately fortified the city as a bastion of the Japanese defense system.[citation needed]
Davao City was subjected by the returning forces of Gen.Douglas MacArthur to constant bombing before the American Liberation Forces landed inLeyte in October 1944.[27] Filipino soldiers and localguerrilla fighters were actively fighting Japanese forces until liberation at the conclusion of theBattle of Mindanao.[28]
Mindanao was peaceful and increasingly progressive in the postwar period, including the 1950s and the mid-1960s. Ethnic tensions were minimal, and there was essentially no presence of secessionists groups in Mindanao.[29]
UnderFerdinand Marcos's administration, Christian groups began to settle in Mindanao, displacing many locals. The population boom resulted in conflicts as the original owners sought their ancestral land domains.[30][31]
TheMarcos administration encouraged new settlers who had emigrated to Mindanao to form a militia, which was eventually called theIlaga. Anecdotal evidence states that the Ilaga often committed human rights abuses by targeting theMoro andLumad people, as well as attempting to seize additional territory. It resulted in a lingering animosity between Moro and Christian communities. Mistrust and a cycle of violence are still felt today due to the creation of the Ilaga.[32][33]
Additionally, an economic crisis in late 1969 led to social unrest throughout the country, and violent crackdowns on protests led to the radicalization of many students,[35] with some joining theNew People's Army, bringing theNew People's Army rebellion to Mindanao for the first time.[29]
Marcos' declaration led to the shuttering of press outlets – television stations, national newspapers, weekly magazines, community newspapers, and radio stations – throughout the country, including in Mindanao.[36] The remaining years of the Marcos dictatorship led to the killings of many Mindanao journalists, with prominent examples beingAlex Orcullo ofMindanao Currents andMindaweek,[37][38] andJacobo Amatong of theMindanao Observer.[39][40]
In March 2000, PresidentJoseph Estrada declared an "All Out War" against the MILF after it committed a series of terrorist attacks on government buildings, civilians, and foreigners. A number of livelihood intervention projects, from organisations such asUSAID and the Emergency Livelihood Assistance Program (ELAP), aided in the reconstruction of areas affected by constant battles on the island.[41]
On January 25, 2015,a shootout took place during a police operation by the Special Action Force (SAF) of the Philippine National Police (PNP) in Tukanalipao, Mamasapano, Maguindanao. The operation, codenamed Oplan Exodus, was intended to capture or kill wanted Malaysian terrorist and bomb-maker Zulkifli Abdhir and other Malaysian terrorists or high-ranking members of the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF).
Lanao sultans making an open letter to Duterte urging for the quick resolution of the Marawi crisis
In May 2017, PresidentRodrigo Duterte declared martial law on the entire island group of Mindanao following theMarawi siege by theMaute terrorist group.[42] More than 180,000 people were forced to evacuateMarawi City.[43] Around 165 security forces and 47 residents were confirmed killed in the battle, although Marawi residents believe the number of civilians killed was far higher. The official death toll in the five-month conflict is 1,109, most of which were members of a militant alliance which drew fighters from radical factions of domestic Islamist groups.[44]
In 2024, former PresidentRodrigo Duterte called for Mindanao to secede from the Philippines,[45] reviving the movement started by congressmanPantaleon Alvarez.[46] Secession calls resurfaced just before 2026, as proposed by some personalities inCagayan de Oro;[47] the inclusion of Palawan in the map planned by these individuals for submission to the United NationsSpecial Committee on Decolonization was denounced by Palawan officials the next month.[48]
Mindanao's economy accounts for 14% of the country's gross domestic product. The region grew 4.9% in 2016 against Luzon's 5.5% and Visayas' 9.1%.
Agriculture, forestry and fishing make up more than 40% of Mindanao's market, being the country's largest supplier of major crops such as pineapples and bananas.[49]
There is one defined growth corridor in the island, namelyMetro Davao. Other growth centers are: Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, Zamboanga City, Cotabato City, and Pagadian City.[49]
Being the top-performing economy in Mindanao,Davao Region has the 5th-biggest economy in the country and the second-fastest-growing economy next to Cordillera Autonomous Region.[50] While the region's economy is predominantly agri-based, it is now developing into a center for agro-industrial business, trade and tourism. Its competitive advantage is in agri-industry as its products, papayas, mangoes, bananas, pineapples, fresh asparagus, flowers, and fish products are exported internationally. The region can be a vital link to markets in other parts of Mindanao,Brunei Darussalam and parts ofMalaysia andIndonesia.[51][better source needed]
There is also a growing call center sector in the region, mostly centered inDavao City.
Some 2,130 government-led infrastructure projects worth P547.9 billion have also been lined up for Mindanao until 2022.
NEDA officials said that 68% of that budget will be allotted to the transportation sector, while 16% will go to water resources, and 6% to social infrastructure.
Of this amount, 18 infrastructure projects have been identified as "flagship projects", five of them having already been approved by President Rodrigo Duterte.
The projects include the₱35.26 billion Tagum-Davao-Digos Segment of theMindanao Railway, the ₱40.57 billion Davao airport, the ₱14.62 billion Laguindingan airport, the ₱4.86 billion Panguil Bay Bridge Project, and the ₱5.44 billion Malitubog-Maridagao Irrigation Project, Phase II.
Projects in the pipeline are the second and third phases of the Mindanao Railway; the Agus-Pulangi plant rehabilitation; the Davao expressway; the Zamboanga Fish Port Complex rehabilitation; the Balo-i Plains Flood Control Project; Asbang Small Reservoir Irrigation Project; the Ambal Simuay Sub-Basin of the Mindanao River Basin Flood Control and River Protection Project; as well as the Road Network Development Project in Conflict-Affected Areas in Mindanao project.[49]
Sulu is not part of any region after theSupreme Court declared its inclusion in Bangsamoro unconstitutional as the majority of its residents voted against it during the2019 plebiscite.[53]
^Land area figures are the sum of each region's component provinces (and/or independent cities), derived from the National Statistical Coordination Board (Philippine Statistics Authority) official website.
The mountains of Mindanao can be grouped into ten ranges, including both complex structural mountains and volcanoes. The structural mountains on the extreme eastern and western portions of the island show broad exposures ofMesozoic rock, and Ultrabasic rocks at the surface in many places along the east coast. Other parts of the island consist mainly ofCenozoic andQuaternary volcanic or sedimentary rocks.
In the eastern portion of the island, fromBilas Point inSurigao del Norte toCape San Agustin inDavao Oriental, is a range of complex mountains known in their northern portion as theDiwata Mountains. This range is low and rolling in its central portion. A proposed road connectingBislig on the east coast with theAgusan River would pass through 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) of broad saddle across the mountains at a maximum elevation of less than 250 meters (820 ft); while the existing east–west road fromLianga, 48 km (30 mi) north ofBislig, reaches a maximum elevation of only 450 m (1,480 ft). The Diwata Mountains, north of these low points, are considerably higher and more rugged, reaching an elevation of 2,012 m (6,601 ft) inMount Hilong-Hilong, 17 miles (27 km) along the eastern portion ofCabadbaran. The southern portion of this range is broader and even more rugged than the northern section. InDavao Oriental, several peaks rise above 2,600 m (8,530 ft) and one mountain rises to 2,910 m (9,547 ft).
The east-facing coastal regions of Davao and Surigao del Sur are marked by a series of small coastal lowlands separated from each other by rugged forelands which extend to the water's edge. Offshore are numerouscoral reefs and tinyislets. This remote and forbidding coast is made doubly difficult to access during the months from October to March by heavy surf driven before the northeast trade winds. A few miles offshore is found thePhilippine Deep. This ocean trench, reaching measured depths of 34,696 feet (10,575 m), is the third-deepest trench, (after theMariana Trench andTonga Trench) on the earth's surface.
A second north–south mountain range extends fromTalisayan in the north, toTinaca Point in the southernmost point of Mindanao. This mountain range runs along the western borders of theAgusan del Norte,Agusan del Sur, andDavao provinces. This range is mainly structural in origin, but it also contains at least three active volcano peaks. The central and northern portions of this range contain several peaks between 2,000 and 2,600 m (6,600 and 8,500 ft), and here the belt of mountains is about 30 miles (48 km) across.
West ofDavao City stand two inactive volcanoes:Mount Talomo at 2,893 meters (9,491 ft), andMount Apo at 2,964 m (9,724 ft). Mount Apo is the highest point in the Philippines. South of Mount Apo, this central mountain belt is somewhat lower than it is to the north, with peaks averaging only 1,100 to 1,800 m (3,600 to 5,900 ft).
In Western Mindanao, a range of complex structural mountains form the long, hand-likeZamboanga Peninsula. These mountains, reaching heights of only 1,200 meters (3,900 feet), are not as high as the other structural belts in Mindanao. There are several places in the Zamboanga Mountains where small inter-mountain basins have been created, with some potential for future agricultural development. The northeastern end of this range is marked by the twin peaks of the now-extinct volcano,Mount Malindang, that towers overOzamiz at a height of 2,425 m (7,956 ft). Mount Dapia is the highest mountain in the Zamboanga Peninsula, reaching a height of 2,617 m (8,586 ft).Batorampon Point is the highest mountain at the southernmost end of the peninsula, reaching a height of only 1,335 m (4,380 ft); it is located in the boundary ofZamboanga City.
A series of volcanic mountains is located within the vicinity ofLake Lanao forming a broad arc through theLanao del Sur,Cotabato andBukidnon provinces. At least six of the twenty odd peaks in this area are active and several stand in semi-isolation. TheButig Peaks, with their four crater lakes, are easily seen fromCotabato.Mount Ragang, an active volcano cone reaching 2,815 m (9,236 ft), is the most isolated, while the greatest height is reached byMount Kitanglad at 2,889 m (9,478 ft).
Mindanao coast
InSouth Cotabato, is another range of volcanic mountains, this time paralleling the coast. These mountains have a maximum extent of 110 miles (180 km) from northwest to southeast and measure some 30 miles (48 km) across. One of the well-known mountains here isMount Parker, whose almost circularcrater lake measures a mile-and-a-quarter in diameter and lies 300 m (980 ft) below its 2,040 m (6,690 ft) summit.Mount Matutum is a protected area and is considered one of the major landmarks in theSouth Cotabato province.
Another important physiographic division of Mindanao is the series of upland plateaus in theBukidnon andLanao del Sur provinces. Theseplateaus are rather extensive and almost surround severalvolcanoes in this area. The plateaus are made up of basaltic lava flows inter-bedded with volcanic ash and tuff. Near their edges, the plateaus are cut by deepcanyons, and at several points waterfalls drop down to the narrow coastal plain. These falls hold considerable promise for the development of hydroelectric energy. Indeed, one such site atMaria Cristina Falls has already become a major producer. The rolling plateaus lie at an elevation averaging 700 meters above sea level, and offer relief from the often oppressive heat of the coastal lowlands.
Lake Lanao occupies a large portion of one such plateau inLanao del Sur. This lake is the largest lake in Mindanao and the second largest in the country; it is roughly triangular in shape with an 18-mile-long (29 km) base, having a surface at 780 meters above sea level, and is rimmed on the east, south, and west by a series of peaks reaching 2,300 meters.[citation needed]Marawi City, at the northern tip of the lake, is bisected by theAgus River, which feeds theMaria Cristina Falls.
Another of Mindanao's waterfall sites is located in Malabang, 15 miles (24 km) south ofLake Lanao. Here the Jose Abad Santos Falls present one of the nation's scenic wonders at the gateway to a 200-hectare national park development.
The Limunsudan Falls, with an approximate height of 800 ft (240 m), is the highest waterfall in the Philippines; it is located inIligan City.
There is some indication that the Agusan Valley occupies a broad syncline between the central mountains and the east-coast mountains. This valley measures 110 miles (180 km) from south to north and varies from 20 to 30 miles (32 to 48 km) in width. 35 miles (56 km) north of the head ofDavao Gulf lies the watershed between the Agusan and the tributaries of the Libuganon River, which flows to the gulf. The elevation of this divide is well under 200 m (660 ft), indicating the almost continuous nature of the lowland from theMindanao Sea on the north toDavao Gulf.
TheRio Grande de Mindanao and its main tributaries, the Catisan and thePulangi, form a valley with a maximum length of 120 miles (190 km) and a width which varies from 12 miles (19 km) at the river mouth to about 60 miles (97 km) in centralCotabato. The southern extensions of this Cotabato Valley extend uninterrupted across a 350-meter (1,150 ft)watershed fromIllana Bay on the northwest toSarangani Bay on the southeast.
Other lowlands of a coastal nature are to be found in various parts of Mindanao. Many of these are tiny isolated pockets, along the northwest coast ofZamboanga. In other areas such as the Davao Plain, these coastal lowlands are 16 km (9.9 mi) wide and several times in length.
FromDipolog, eastward along the northern coast of Mindanao approachingButuan, extends a rolling coastal plain of varying width. InMisamis Occidental, the now dormantMount Malindang has created a lowland averaging 13 km (8.1 mi) in width. ShallowPanguil Bay divides this province fromLanao del Norte, and is bordered by low-lying, poorly drained lowlands and extensive mangroves. InMisamis Oriental, the plain is narrower and in places whittles into rugged capes that reach the sea. East ofCagayan de Oro, a rugged peninsula extends into theMindanao Sea.
Climate change is expected to have adverse effects on Mindanao's population, environment, and agriculture.[58][59] Mindanao is already experiencingsevere climate events attributed to changes in the Earth's temperature. These climate events include typhoons such asTyphoon Washi,Typhoon Bopha andTyphoon Rai as of December 2021. Those storms had a severe impact on the island of Mindanao.[60]
An American census conducted in the early 1900s noted that the island was inhabited by people "greatly divided in origin, temperament and religion".[62] Evidence of the island's cultural diversity can be seen in the buildings and ruins of old Spanish settlements in the northwestern peninsula that span eastwards to the southern gulf coast, the site of the ancientRajahnate of Butuan in the northeast region (Caraga), the sultanates in the southwest (Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Lanao,Sultanate of Maguindanao), a number of Buddhist and Taoist temples, and the numerous indigenous tribes.
Today around 25.8 percent of the household population in Mindanao classified themselves as Cebuanos. Other ethnic groups included Bisaya/Binisaya (18.4%), Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (8.2%), Maguindanaon (5.5%), and Maranao (5.4%). The remaining 36.6 percent belonged to other ethnic groups, including individuals from Luzon and the Lumad people (indigenous peoples of Mindanao). Cebuano registered the highest proportion of ethnic groups in Northern Mindanao and Davao Region with 35.59 percent and 37.76 percent, respectively. In Soccsksargen, it was Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (31.58%), Binisaya/Bisaya (33.10%) in Zamboanga Peninsula, Maranao (26.40%) in BARMM, and Surigaonon (25.67%) in Caraga.[7]
Like elsewhere, assimilation from one ethnic group into another is not uncommon in Mindanao. Over the last decades, many Christian migrants from Luzon and Lumad tribes on the island integrated and assimilated into the majority Cebuano-speaking society in Mindanao (Hiligaynon-speaking in the case of Soccsksargen). They identified themselves as Visayans as a result of learning to speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon fluently from their Cebuano or Hiligaynon neighbors. Despite this, many of them still know and retain their non-Visayan roots and some speak their ancestors' language fluently as their second or third language since Mindanao is a melting pot of cultures as a result of southward migration from Luzon and Visayas since the 20th century. Descendants of these migrant Luzon ethnic groups and Lumads, especially newer generations (as Mindanao-born natives), now speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon fluently as their main language with little or no knowledge of their ancestors' native tongues at the time of their southward journey to Mindanao and Lumads developed contact with Cebuano and Hiligaynon speakers. Because the island's inhabitants converted to Christianity and assimilated into the Christian communities, it cannot be always determined whether or not the residents were of indigenous Mindanaoan heritage.[63]
Dozens of languages are spoken in Mindanao; among them,Cebuano,Hiligaynon,Maguindanaon,Maranao,Surigaonon,Tausug, andChavacano are most widely spoken. Of the seven aforementioned regional languages, Cebuano (often referred to asBisaya) has the largest number of speakers, being spoken throughout Northern Mindanao (except the southern parts ofLanao del Norte), the Davao region, the western half of the Caraga region (as well as the city ofBislig and the municipalities surrounding it inSurigao del Sur), the entirety of the Zamboanga Peninsula (with the exception of Zamboanga City), and southern Soccsksargen.
Hiligaynon is the main language of Soccsksargen, where majority of the inhabitants are of ethnic Hiligaynon stock.Maguindanaon,Manobo,Tboli andBlaan are the indigenous languages spoken in Soccsksargen.Ilocano, a native language of the Luzonethnic group of the same name, is also spoken in some areas in Soccsksargen, where they also share residency with Hiligaynons. Surigaonon is spoken in the eastern half of the Caraga region, mainly by the eponymous Surigaonons. Tausug is widely spoken specifically in the Sulu Archipelago, which comprises the provinces ofBasilan,Sulu, andTawi-Tawi, with a community of speakers residing in Zamboanga City.
Maranao and Maguindanaon are the dominant languages of the eastern territories of the Bangsamoro, respectively, with the former being spoken inLanao del Sur as well as the southern areas of Lanao del Norte, and the latter in the eponymous provinces ofMaguindanao del Norte andMaguindanao del Sur and also in adjacent areas which are part of Soccsksargen. Chavacano is the native language of Zamboanga City and is also the lingua franca of Basilan; it is also spoken in the southernmost fringes ofZamboanga Sibugay. It is also spoken, albeit as a minority language, inCotabato City and Davao City, where dialects of it, respectively, exist, namely Cotabateño and Castellano Abakay, both of which evolved from the variant of the language spoken in Zamboanga City.
English andFilipino are also widely understood and spoken, with the former being highly utilized in business and academia, and the latter being used to communicate with visitors from Luzon and other parts of Visayas. Filipino is also the main lingua franca of Cotabato City and in BARMM as a whole.
Christianity is the dominant religious affiliation in Mindanao with 43% of the household population, the majority of which are adherents ofCatholicism;Islam comprised 23.39%,[65] and other religions were Pentecostal (5.34%),Aglipayan (2.16%), andIglesia ni Cristo (5.2%).[7]
Major tourist spots are scattered throughout Mindanao, consisting mostly of beach resorts, scuba diving resorts, surfing, museums, nature parks, mountain climbing, and river rafting.Siargao, best known for its surfing tower in Cloud 9, also has caves, pools, waterfalls, and lagoons.[66] There are archaeological sites, historical ruins, and museums inButuan.[67] White Island is a popular tourist spot inCamiguin. The Duka Bay[68] and the Matangale[69] dive resorts inMisamis Oriental offer glass bottomed boat rides and scuba diving lessons.Cagayan de Oro has beach resorts, the Mapawa Nature Park, white water rafting and kayaking, museums, and historical landmarks.[70] Ziplining is the main attraction at the Dahilayan Adventure Park and rock wall climbing at Kiokong inBukidnon.[71]Iligan City has the Maria Cristina Falls, Tinago Falls, nature parks, beaches, and historical landmarks.[72] There are parks, historical buildings, the Vinta Ride at Paseo del Mar, boat villages, 11 Islands (commonly called asOnçe Islas), 17th-centuryFort Pilar Shrine and Museum and the world-renownedPink Sand Beach of Sta. Cruz inZamboanga City.[73][better source needed] There are festivals, fireworks, and the Beras Bird Sanctuary inTakurong City.[74]Davao hasMt Apo, parks, museums, beaches, historical landmarks, and scuba diving resorts.[75][better source needed]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(July 2017)
Many areas in Mindanao suffer rotating 12-hour blackouts due to the island's woefully inadequate power supply.[76] The island is forecast to continue suffering from a 200-megawatt power deficit until 2015, when the private sector begins to operate new capacity.Aboitiz Equity Ventures, a publicly listed holding company, has committed to supplying 1,200 megawatts through a coal-fired plant on the border of Davao City and Davao del Sur that is slated for operation by 2018.[77] TheAgus-Pulangui hydropower complex, which supplies more than half of Mindanao's power supply, is currently producing only 635 megawatts of its 982 megawatt capacity due to the heavy siltation of the rivers that power the complex.Zamboanga City, an urbanized center in southwest Mindanao, is expected to begin experiencing daily three-hour brownouts due to theNational Power Corporation's decision to reduce power supply in the city by 10 megawatts.[78]
TheManila Electric Company (Meralco), the largest power distributor in the Philippines, andGlobal Business Power Corp (GBPC), also a major provider, have announced plans to enter Mindanao for the first time to establish solutions for the power problems within the island.[78]
^Catubig, Jonathan B. (2003)."Dapitan Kingdom: A Historical Study on the Bisayan Migration and Settlement in Mindanao, circa 1563".The Journal of History.49 (1–4): 144.The Ternatan king planned a retaliatory attack against the Boholanos. He succeeded with his plans by covertly sending his twentyjoangas to Bohol one by one deceitfully saying that "they are traders attending only to the sale of their goods"
^abMiclat, Gus (2002). "Our Lives Were Never the Same Again". In Arguillas, Carolyn O. (ed.).Turning Rage Into Courage: Mindanao Under Martial Law. MindaNews Publications, Mindanao News and Information Cooperative Center.OCLC644320116.
^George, T. J. S. (1980).Revolt in Mindanao: The Rise of Islam in Philippine Politics. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-580429-5.OCLC6569089.
^Severino, Howie (February 25, 2017).iWitness: Sino si Alex Orcullo? At Ano ang Kontribusyon niya sa People Power sa Davao? (TV Documentary) (in Filipino).GMA News and Public Affairs.
^Maslog, Crispin C. (1993).The rise and fall of Philippine community newspapers. Intramuros, Manila: Published by the Philippine Press Institute with funding from Konrad Adenauer Foundation.ISBN971-8703-09-8.OCLC29830136.
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