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| Military of the Ottoman Empire | |
|---|---|
| Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun silahlı kuvvetleri (Turkish) | |
.svg) Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire | |
| Founded | 1299 |
| Current form | 1861 |
| Disbanded | 1922 |
| Service branches |  Ottoman Army Ottoman Navy Ottoman Air Force |
| Headquarters | Constantinople,Ottoman Empire |
| Leadership | |
| Commander-in-Chief |  Ottoman Sultan |
| Personnel | |
| Conscription | Yes |
| Related articles | |
| Ranks | Military ranks of the Ottoman Empire |
Part ofa series on the |
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| Military of the Ottoman Empire |
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Modern army(1861–1922) |
TheMilitary of the Ottoman Empire (Turkish:Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun silahlı kuvvetleri) was thearmed forces of theOttoman Empire. It was founded in 1299 and dissolved in 1922.
TheMilitary of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods.[according to whom?] The foundation era covers the years between 1300 (Byzantine expedition) and 1453 (Conquest of Constantinople), the classical period covers the years between 1451 (second enthronement of SultanMehmed II) and 1606 (Peace of Zsitvatorok), the reformation period covers the years between 1606 and 1826 (Vaka-i Hayriye), the modernisation period covers the years between 1826[clarification needed] and 1858 and decline period covers the years between 1861 (enthronement of SultanAbdülaziz) and 1918 (Armistice of Mudros).[citation needed] The Ottoman army is the forerunner of theTurkish Armed Forces.[1][2][3][4][5][6]
The earliest form of the Ottoman military was a steppe-nomadic cavalry force.[7] This was centralized byOsman I fromTurkoman tribesmen inhabiting westernAnatolia in the late 13th century.
These horsemen became anirregular force of raiders used asshock troops, armed with weapons like bows and spears. They were given fiefs calledtimars in the conquered lands and were later calledtimariots. In addition, they acquired wealth during campaigns.
Orhan organized a standing army paid by salary rather thanlooting or fiefs. The infantry were calledyayas and the cavalry was known asmüsellems. The force was made up of foreignmercenaries for the most part, and only a few Turks were content to accept salaries in place of timars. Foreign mercenaries were not required to convert toIslam as long as they obeyed their Ottoman commanders.[8]
The Ottomans began using guns in the late 14th century. Following that, other troop types began to appear, such as the regularmusketeers (Piyade Topçu, literally "foot artillery"); regular cavalry armed withfirearms (Süvari Topçu Neferi, literally "mounted artillery soldier"), similar to the later Europeanreiter orcarabinier; and bombardiers (Humbaracı), consisting ofgrenadiers who threw explosives called khımbara and the soldiers who served the artillery with maintenance and powder supplies.
The Ottoman Empire was the first of the three IslamicGunpowder Empires, followed bySafavid Persia andMughal India. By the 14th century, the Ottomans had adopted gunpowderartillery.[9] The adoption of the gunpowder weapons by the Ottomans was so rapid that they "preceded both their European and Middle Eastern adversaries in establishing centralized and permanent troops specialized in the manufacturing and handling offirearms."[10] But it was their use of artillery that shocked their adversaries and impelled the other two Islamic Gunpowder Empires to accelerate their weapons program. The Ottomans had artillery at least by the reign ofBayezid I and used them in the sieges of Constantinople in 1399 and 1402. They finally proved their worth as siege engines in the successfulsiege of Salonica in 1430.[11]
The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. TheJanissaries had initially been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. By the time ofSultan Mehmed II, they had been drilled with firearms and became "perhaps the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world."[11] The Janissaries are thus considered the first modern standing armies.[12][13] The combination of artillery andJanissary firepower proved decisive atVarna in 1444 against a force of Crusaders, and laterBaşkent andChaldoran against theAq Qoyunlu and Safavids.[14]
Ottoman Classical Army was the military structure and the founding and mainarmy established byMehmed II, during his reorganization of the state and the military efforts. This is the major reorganization followingOrhan I which organized a standing army paid by salary rather thanbooty or fiefs. This army was the force duringthe rise of the Ottoman Empire. The organization was twofold, central (Kapu Kulu) and peripheral (Eyalet). The classical Ottoman army was the most disciplined and feared military force of its time, mainly due to its high level of organization, logistical capabilities and elite troops. Following a century-long reform efforts, this Army was forced to disband by SultanMahmud II on 15 June 1826 in what is known asthe Auspicious Incident. By the reign of Mahmud the Second, the elite janissaries had become corrupt and always stood in the way of modernization efforts meaning they were more of a liability than an asset.
By thesiege of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans had large enoughcannons to batter the walls of the city, to the surprise of the defenders.[15] TheDardanelles Gun was designed and cast in bronze in 1464 by Munir Ali. The Dardanelles Gun was still present for duty more than 340 years later in 1807, when aRoyal Navy force appeared and commenced theDardanelles Operation. Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics withpropellant andprojectiles, and then fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment.[16]
Themusket first appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465.[17]Damascus steel was later used in the production of firearms such as the musket from the 16th century.[18] At theBattle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 muskets "formed 8 consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest."[19] The Chinese attempted to adopt the Ottoman kneeling position for firing.[20] In 1598, Chinese writer Zhao Shizhen described Turkish muskets as being superior to European muskets.[21]
Themarching band andmilitary band both have their origins in theOttoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century.[22]
The main theme of this period is reforming theJanissaries. The Janissary Corps was originally made up of enslaved young Christian boys, generally from the western Balkans, who were forced to convert to Islam[23] and were educated in military matters under the Ottoman Empire. During the 15th and 16th Centuries, they became known as the most efficient and effective military unit in Europe.[citation needed] By 1570 born Muslims were accepted into the Janissaries Corps and by the 17th century most would be born Muslims. According to Jason Goodwin in the 17th and 18th centuries, most Janissaries were Muslim Albanians.
Aside from the Janissary infantry, there was also the Sipahi Cavalry. They were, however, different from the Janissaries in that they had both military and administrative duties. The Janissaries were tied strictly to being able to perform military duties at any time, however, the Sipahi were treated differently primarily in that they got their income from the land that was given to them by the Sultan under the timariot system. Within these agricultural lands, the Sipahi were in charge of collecting the taxes that would serve as their salary. At the same time, they were responsible for maintaining peace and order there. They were also expected to be able to serve in the military whenever the Sultan deemed their service necessary.[24]
In 1621, the ChineseWu Pei Chih described Ottoman muskets that used arack-and-pinion mechanism, which was not known to have been used in any European or Chinese firearms at the time.[25]
The Ottoman Empire made numerous efforts to recruit French experts for its modernization. The French officer and adventurerClaude-Alexandre de Bonneval (1675–1747) went in the service of SultanMahmud I, converted toIslam, and endeavoured to modernize theOttoman army, creating cannon foundries, powder and musket factories and a military engineering school.[26] Another officerFrançois Baron de Tott was involved in thereform efforts for the Ottoman military. He succeeded in having a new foundry built to makehowitzers and was instrumental in the creation of mobile artillery units. He built fortifications on theBosphorus and started a naval science course that laid the foundation stone for the laterTurkish Naval Academy.[27]He could only achieve limited success, however. Unfortunately, it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on the Ottoman army and de Tott returned home.
When they had requested French help in 1795, youngNapoleon Bonaparte was scheduled to be sent to Constantinople to help organize Ottoman artillery. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the Directory by putting down a Parisian mob at13 Vendémiaire and was kept in France.[28][29]
The supply of Ottoman forces operating in Moldavia and Wallachia was a major challenge that required well-organized logistics. An army of 60,000 soldiers and 40,000 horses required a half-million kilograms of food per day. The Ottoman forces fared better than the Russians, but the expenses crippled both national treasuries. Supplies on both sides came using fixed prices, taxes, and confiscation.[30]
SultanSelim III from 1789 to 1807 set up the "Nizam-i Cedid" [new order] army to replace the inefficient and outmoded imperial army. The old system depended onJanissaries, who had largely lost their military effectiveness. Selim closely followed Western military forms. It would be expensive for a new army, so a new treasury ['Irad-i Cedid'] was established. The result was the Porte now had an efficient, European-trained army equipped with modern weapons. However, it had fewer than 10,000 soldiers in an era when Western armies were ten to fifty times larger. Furthermore, the Sultan was upsetting the well-established traditional political powers. As a result, it was rarely used, apart from its use against Napoleon's expeditionary force at Gaza and Rosetta. The new army was dissolved by reactionary elements with the overthrow of Selim in 1807, but it became the model of the new Ottoman Army created later in the 19th century.[31][32]
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The main theme of this period was disbanding the Janissary, which happened in 1826, and changing the military culture. The major event is "Vaka-ı Hayriye" translated asAuspicious Incident. The military units formed were used in theCrimean War,the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), and theGreco-Turkish War (1897).
The failed efforts of a new system date before 1826. Sultan Selim III formed theNizam-ı Cedid army (Nizam-ı Cedid meaning New Order) in the late 18th century and early 19th century. This was the first serious attempt to transform the Ottoman military forces into a modern army. However, the Nizam-ı Cedid was short-lived, dissolving after the abdication of Selim III in 1807.
Sultan Mahmud II, Selim III's successor and nephew, who was a great reformer, disbanded the Janissaries in 1826 with so-called known as "Vaka-ı Hayriye" (the auspicious incident).
TheAsakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye was established, as a contemporary modern army.
Egypt, as part of the empire, also underwent drastic military changes duringMuhammad Ali Pasha's reign. The two largest military reforms were the effective practices of indoctrination and surveillance, which dramatically changed the way the military was both conducted by the leadership and also perceived by the rest of society. New military law codes resulted in isolation, extreme surveillance, and severe punishments to enforce obedience. The Pasha's goal was to create a high regard for the law and strict obedience stemming from sincere want. This shift from direct control by bodily punishment to indirect control through strict law enforcement aimed to make the soldiers' lives predictable, thus creating a more manageable military for the Pasha.
The main theme of this period is organizing and training the newly formed units. The change of the French system to the German system occurred as the German military mission was most effective during the period. The military units formed were used in theBalkan Wars andWorld War I.
The shift from Classical Army (1451–1606) took more than a century beginning from failed attempts of Selim III (1789) to a period ofOttoman military reforms (1826–1858) and finally Abdulhamid II. Abdulhamid II, as early as 1880 sought, and two years later secured, German assistance, which culminated in the appointment of Lt. Col. Kohler. However. Although the consensus that Abdulhamid favored the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of the officer corps was fairly general, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, and he also cut down the military budget. The formation of Ottoman Modern Army was a slow process with ups and downs.
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TheOttoman Navy, also known as theOttoman Fleet, was established in the early 14th century after the empire first expanded to reach the sea in 1323 by capturingKaramürsel, the site of the first Ottoman naval shipyard and the nucleus of the future Navy. During its long existence, it wasinvolved in many conflicts and signed several maritime treaties. At its height, the Navyextended to the Indian Ocean, sending anexpedition to Indonesia in 1565.
For much of its history, the Navy was led by the position of theKapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral; literally "Captain Pasha"). This position was abolished in 1867 when it wasreplaced by the Minister of the Navy (Turkish:Bahriye Nazırı) and severalFleet Commanders (Turkish:Donanma Komutanları).
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Navy's tradition was continued under theTurkish Naval Forces of theRepublic of Turkey in 1923.
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TheOttoman Aviation Squadrons were military aviation units of theOttoman Army andNavy.[33] The history of Ottoman military aviation dates back to June 1909 or July 1911 depending if active duty assignment is accepted as the establishment. The organisation is sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Air Force. According to Edward J. Erickson, the very term Ottoman Air Force is a gross exaggeration and the term Osmanlı Hava Kuvvetleri (Ottoman Air Force) unfortunately is often repeated in contemporary Turkish sources.[33] The fleet size reached its greatest in December 1916, when the Ottoman aviation squadrons had 90 airplanes. The Aviation Squadrons were reorganized as the "General Inspectorate of Air Forces" (Kuva-yı Havaiye Müfettiş-i Umumiliği) on 29 July 1918. With the signing of theArmistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, Ottoman military aviation effectively came to an end. At the time of the armistice, the Ottoman military aviation had around 100pilots; 17 land-basedairplanecompanies (4 planes each); and 3seaplanecompanies (4 planes each); totalling 80 aircraft.
In 1389 the Ottomans introduced a system of military conscription. In times of need every town,quarter, and village had the duty to present a fully equipped conscript at the recruiting office. The new force of irregular infantrymen, calledAzabs, was used in several different ways. They supported the supplies to the front line, dug roads and built bridges. On rare occasions, they were used ascannon fodder to slow down an enemy advance. A branch of the Azabs were thebashi-bazouk (başıbozuk). These specialized in close combat and were sometimes mounted. Recruited from the homeless, vagrants and criminals, they became notorious for their undisciplined brutality.[34][failed verification]
TheOttoman Military College in Istanbul was the Ottoman Empire's two-year military staff college, which aimed to educate staff officers for the Ottoman Army.
Marshal Ahmed Fevzi Pasha together with Mehmed Namık Pasha formed the academy in 1834 as theMekteb-i Harbiye (Ottoman Turkish: lit. "War School"), and the first class of officers graduated in 1841. This foundation occurred in the context of military reforms within the Ottoman Empire, which recognized the need for more educated officers to modernize its army. The need for a new military order was part of the reforms of SultanMahmud II (r. 1808–1839), continued by his son SultanAbdulmejid I (r. 1839–1861).
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the school renamed itself asTurkish Military Academy under theRepublic of Turkey.
The origin of the Naval Academy goes back to 1773 when SultanMustafa III's Grand Vizier and AdmiralCezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha founded a naval school under the name of "Naval Engineering atGolden Horn Naval Shipyard".François Baron de Tott, a French officer and advisor to the Ottoman military, was appointed for the establishment of a course to provide education onplane geometry andnavigation. The course, attended also by civilian captains of the merchant marine, took place on board agalleon anchored atKasimpaşa in Istanbul and lasted three months. The temporary course turned into a continuous education on land with the establishment of "Naval Mathematical College" in February 1776. With growing numbers of cadets, the college building at the naval shipyard was extended. On 22 October 1784 the college, renamed the "Imperial Naval Engineering School" (Ottoman Turkish:Mühendishâne-i Bahrî-i Hümâyûn), started its three-year education courses in the new building. From 1795 on, the training was divided into navigation andcartography forofficers of the deck, andnaval architecture andshipbuilding fornaval engineers. In 1838 the naval school moved into its new building in Kasımpaşa. With the beginning (1839) of thereformation efforts, the school was renamed "Naval School" (Ottoman Turkish:Mekteb-i Bahriye) and continued to operate in Kasımpaşa for 12 years. Then it was relocated in 1850 to Heybeliada for the last time. During theSecond Constitutional Era, an upgraded education system was adopted in 1909 by theRoyal Naval Academy.
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the school renamed itself asNaval Academy (Turkey) under theRepublic of Turkey
The system of ranks and insignia followed the patterns of theGerman Empire.[citation needed]
| Year | Yaya &Musellem | Azab | Akıncı | Timarli Sipahi | (Total)Timarli Sipahi &Cebelu | Janissary | Kapikulu Sipahi | OtherKapikulu | (Total)Kapikulu | Fortress guards,Martalos and Navy | Sekban | Nizam-ı Cedid | Total Strength of Ottoman Army |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1350 | 1,000 est. | 1,000 est. | 3,500 est. | 200 est. | 500 est. | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 6,000 est. |
| 1389 | 4,000 est. | 8,000 est. | 10,000 est. | 5,000 est. | 10,000 est. | 500 est. | 250 est. | 250 est. | 1,000 est. | 4,000 est. | — | — | 37,000 est. |
| 1402 | 8,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 10,000 est. | 20,000 est. | 40,000 est. | 1,000 est. | 500 est. | 500 est. | 2,000 est. | 6,000 est. | — | — | 81,000 est. |
| 1453 | 8,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 10,000 est. | 20,000 est. | 40,000 est. | 6,000[35] | 2,000 est. | 4,000 est. | 12,000 est. | 9,000 est. | — | — | 94,000 est. |
| 1528 | 8,180[36] | 20,000 est. | 12,000[36] | 37,741[36] | 80,000 est. | 12,000 est. | 5,000 est. | 7,000 est. | 24,146[36] | 23,017[36] | — | — | 105,084–167,343 est. |
| 1574 | 8,000 est. | 20,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 40,000 est. | 90,000 est. | 13,599[37] | 5,957[37] | 9,619[37] | 29,175[37] | 30,000 est. | — | — | 192,175 est. |
| 1607/ 1609 | [a] | [b] | [c] | 44,404 (1607)[41] 50,000 est. (1609) | 105,339 (1607)[41] 137,000 (1609)[42] | 37,627 (1609)[43] | 20,869 (1609)[37] | 17,372 (1609)[37] | 75,868 (1609)[37] | 25,000 est. | 10,000 est. | — | 196,207–247,868 est. |
| 1670 | [d] | [e] | [f] | 22,000 est. | 50,000 est. | 39,470[37] | 14,070[37] | 16,756[37] | 70,296[37] | 25,000 est. | 10,000 est. | — | 70,296–155,296 est. |
| 1807 | [g] | [h] | [i] | 400 est. | 1,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 500 est. | 500 est. | 16,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 10.000 est. | 25,000[44] | 25,000–67,000 est. |
| 1826 | [j] | [k] | [l] | 400 est. | 1,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 500 est. | 500 est. | 16,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 15,000 est. | — | 47,000 est. |
TheOttoman War Medal, better known as the Gallipoli Star, was instituted by the Sultan Mehmed Reshad V on 1 March 1915 for gallantry in battle. TheIftikhar Sanayi Medal was first granted by Sultan Abdulhamid II.Order of the Medjidie was instituted in 1851 by Sultan Abdülmecid I. TheOrder of Osmanieh was created in January 1862 by Sultan Abdulaziz. This became the second highest order with the obsolescence of theNişan-i Iftikhar. The Order of Osmanieh ranks below theNişan-i Imtiyaz.
