Themilitary history of theThree Kingdoms period encompasses roughly a century's worth of prolonged warfare and disorder inChinese history. After the assassination of General-in-chiefHe Jin in September 189, the administrative structures of the Han government became increasingly irrelevant. By the time of death ofCao Cao, the most successful warlord of North China, in 220, the Han empire was divided between the three rival states ofCao Wei,Shu Han andEastern Wu. Due to the ensuing turmoil, the competing powers of the Three Kingdoms era found no shortage of willing recruits for their armies, although press-ganging as well as forcible enlistment of prisoners from defeated armies still occurred. Following four centuries of rule under theHan dynasty, the Three Kingdoms brought about a new era of conflict in China that shifted institutions in favor of a more permanent and selective system of military recruitment. This ultimately included the creation of a hereditary military class as well as increasing reliance on non-Chinese cavalry forces and the end of universal conscription.

As the Han dynasty fell into disarray after theYellow Turban Rebellion, its system of conscription and checks on military leadership broke down, giving local leaders the autonomy to recruit their own personal armies. At the heart of each army was a group of trusted Companions (親近qinjin) consisting of family members, close friends and clansmen hired by whatever means was available to their lord.Cao Cao's earliest commanders who formed the nucleus of his army were all clansmen (Cao Xiu,Cao Zhen,Cao Chun). There was no need for conscription as the conflicts of the late Han dynasty created willing recruits who sought protection under a strong army. This type of soldier, characterized by a lack of loyalty to state or nation, primarily concerned with survival, made up the majority of the army outside of the leader's close following.^[1][2] Due to the lack of loyalty among common troops, acts of heroism and courage were particularly emphasized among commanders who were expected to lead from the front. A typical example of this type of commander would beDian Wei, a former local bully noted for his great strength, appetite, and his choice of weaponry, two halberds of immense weight, who served underCao Cao. In 195, he personally led a group of volunteers clad in double armour (兩鎧liang kai) againstLü Bu's forces while his liege made his escape. He was promoted to colonel of the bodyguard unit known as the Tiger Warriors and later met his death againstZhang Xiu in 197.^[3][4] While echoes of Han organization continued through the formal titles of military structure, in effect the wars of the Three Kingdoms were fought between armies of bands led by individuals selected by dint of violence and charisma.^[5]

Military training programs for the general populace in the inner provinces were mostly discontinued after 30 AD to reduce the risk of rebellion. The total number of professional soldiers in standing armies in the Eastern Han, including all the smaller groups, amounted to approximately 20,000 soldiers. Expeditions and campaigns relied upon tens of thousands of troops from local militia armies and non-Chinese auxiliaries, supplemented by professional and semi-professional troops.^[6] The men in the inner provinces of the empire could be called to serve during emergencies or serve in local militias to fight against bandits, but these men received no formal training or regular exercise. On the other hand, men of the frontier provinces were liable for conscription and military service as before.^[7] This had a negative impact on the performance of the Han army, as noted byYing Shao, who remarked that "sending [such] men into battle without training is just throwing them away".^[8] The majority of soldiers recruited during the early stages of the Three Kingdoms period were thus "neither disciplined nor well trained in the use of arms".^[9] Formations and drill still existed, but these were the exceptions rather than the norm, and there is no evidence of troops engaging in a regular training system or large scale exercises.^[10] Most commanders favored simple rather than complex formations and maneuvers. An example of a formation and drill that did exist isZhuge Liang'sEight Formation Plan, which included different configurations named after Heaven, Earth, Wind, and Clouds. It is not clear what these designations mean, but the Eight Formation Plan was traditionally a square formation composed of nine divisions in three sections, used extensively by Zhuge Liang during his northern expeditions as well as for military training.^[11] The lack of training severely constrained the kind of orders a commander could give for his troops to follow. As a consequence of the limited tactical flexibility at their disposal, the majority of battles were carried out in one of two ways: a head on charge by elite shock troops followed by the loosely organized army of incoherent and disparately trained and equipped soldiers, or ambush and surprise the enemy before they could even respond and cause them to rout.^[12]

Yuan Shao moved to attack Gongsun Zan and the two sides met in battle twenty li south of Jie Bridge. Gongsun Zan had thirty thousand foot soldiers in square formation and ten thousand horsemen split into left and right wings. His White Cavalry Volunteers followed in the center. They split in two, the left riding right, and the right riding left. Their armour and flags shined with brilliance, lighting up heaven and earth. Yuan Shao sent Qu Yi against them with eight hundred soldiers while a thousand crossbowmen on either side supported his advance. Yuan Shao himself led tens of thousands of soldiers from the rear. Qu Yi had resided in Liangzhou for a long time and was familiar with the way of war as practiced by the Qiang tribes. Seeing Qu Yi's small force, Gongsun Zan sent cavalry to crush them. Qu Yi's troops hid behind their shields and made no move until the enemy were ten or twenty yards away; then they leapt up together, their cries shaking the ground, rushing forward with crossbows shooting bolts like thunder, killing all who were struck, and completely defeated Gongsun Zan's army...... killing more than a thousand armed men, Yuan Shao's troops maintained their pursuit to Jie Bridge. Gongsun Zan rallied his troops to turn and fight, but Qu Yi again defeated them. Reaching Gongsun Zan's camp, they captured his standard and the rest of his army took to flight.^[13]

The training that the privileged elite received was far greater in extent compared to that of the common soldier. For example,Cao Cao's son,Cao Pi, started his military education in early childhood. He began training in archery at the age of five, started learning how to ride a horse at the age of six, and could both ride and shoot a target at a hundred paces by the time he was eight.^[14] Horse archery was also practiced inShu Han, which fielded a "Flying Army" of mounted archers.^[15]

In contrast to the military hierarchy of the Han dynasty, leadership of a unit in the Three Kingdoms was functionally hereditary as long as the successor was loyal to his liege and proved militarily competent. When the commander died, a male member of his family inherited control of his troops, and when a soldier died one of his male relatives inherited his position in the unit. By the end of the Three Kingdoms, the termbuqu (部曲) had come to designate the institution of hereditary military leadership. Bothbu andqu, meaning battalions and companies, were originally units of military organization during the Han. Under Cao Cao, a more systematic form of hereditary soldiery was implemented through "military families" (士家shijia) which later became "hereditary troops" (世兵shibing). As their name implies, able male members born into military families served for life, and when they could no longer serve because of illness or death, their sons or close family members replaced them. Their families lived at the capital and other major centers where they could be used by the government as hostages to ensure the loyalty of their soldiers. They were also forbidden from marrying into non-military families in order to prevent their offspring from exiting the system, thus creating a closed community of military households. Although commoners could still be called up in times of urgent need, the rise of government mandated military communities underCao Wei and the demobilization of local levies under theJin dynasty, had by and large, replaced the universal conscription of the Han.^[16]

Tuntian, often rendered as "[military] agricultural colonies," were self-sustaining farming communities created for the purpose of providing food for the military. Generally consisting of displaced peoples, refugees, and bandits, tenants of a tuntian were expected to protect themselves in times of emergencies and in return were exempt from corvée labour. Unlike the tuntian system of the Han dynasty, which was generally hands off, the tuntian policy of the Three Kingdoms era was to directly provide them with supplies and material assistance. The policy of tuntian was implemented primarily byCao Cao,Tao Qian, andGongsun Zan.^[17]

Armies of the Three Kingdoms era used largely the same equipment as the Han dynasty since it directly follows the end of the Han. There were however some minor differences and developments such as the increasing prevalence of armoured cavalry. In one battle, the warlordCao Cao boasted that with only ten sets of horse armour he had faced an enemy with three hundred sets.^[18] The horse armour may however have just been partial frontal barding.^[15] Mountingstirrups were already in use, possibly as early as the Han dynasty, but full riding stirrups would not appear until the 4th century.^[19] References to "dark armour" (xuan kai orxuan jia 玄鎧/玄甲) and "brilliant armour" also began to appear in the 3rd century. This is probably in reference to the association of high quality steel with black ferrous material.^[20]

Weapons were largely the same as well, although there was more focus on idiosyncratic weapons wielded by particularly noteworthy individuals. For example, one man named Chen An apparently wielded a great sword over two meters in length^[21] andSun Quan's wife had over a hundred female attendants armed with daos.^[22] Trends in warfare that had already been underway during the Eastern Han continued to gain momentum. By the end of the Three Kingdoms, the single edged dao, with its thicker and more durable dull side, had overtaken the straight double-edged jian as the primary close combat weapon.^[23] The more expensive, lighter, and less durable jian entered the domain of court dancers, officials, and expert warriors.^[24] While halberds were still used during the period, long spears and lances (similar to pikes) re-rose in prominence over halberds for infantry and cavalry forces. This was believed to have been the result of the long spear and lances' simpler construction, the adoption of long spears and lances by heavy cavalry to strike infantrymen, and the adoption of tighter infantry formations with less room for swinging and hooking [of halberds] in response to the greater threat by cavalry.^[23][25] Soldiers in the northeast specialized in long spears.^[26] After the Han dynasty, the crossbow gradually faded in importance until it made a mild resurgence during theTang dynasty, under which the ideal expeditionary army of 20,000 included 2,200 archers and 2,000 crossbowmen.^[27]

References to "great shields" occur in their usage on the front line to protect spearmen and crossbowmen. Shields were also commonly paired with the single edged dao and used among cavalrymen.^[28] Descriptions of theBattle of Guandu mention that Cao Cao's soldiers employed shield cover above their heads each time they moved out into the open due to oppressive arrow fire fromYuan Shao's wooden towers.^[29]

Although Zhuge Liang is often credited with the invention of therepeating crossbow, this is actually due to a mistranslation confusing it with the multiple bolt crossbow. The source actually says Zhuge invented a multiple bolt crossbow that could shoot ten iron bolts simultaneously, each 20 cm long.^[30]

A report in 231 AD mentions the capture of 5,000 suits of "dark armour" (xuan kai orxuan jia 玄鎧/玄甲) and 3,100 crossbows. Dark armour appears in Han texts as well, but only as the attire worn by honor guards at funeral processions. The only known trait about dark armour is that it reflected the sun's rays. This probably means dark armour was made of high-quality steel, which was often associated with black ferrous material.^[20]

Cao Zhi mentioned three different kinds of armour, two of which were variants of "brilliant" armour:

The Previous Emperor presented your vassal with armor (kai), to wit, a suit of "black-brilliant" (heiguang) and one of "bright-brilliant" (mingguang) and a suit of "double-faced" (liangtang) armor, but now that the present age is peaceful and the weapons and armor (bingge) are not of use, I request leave to turn them all over to the Armor Board (kaicao) to be taken care of.^[31]

Brilliant armour was made of decarburized steel, which shines blue-black when polished, giving it its name.Chen Lin described brilliant armour in the following manner:

As for the armor (kai) then like that of Quegong of the Eastern Barbarians,
It is made of the finest steel refined a hundred times;
The armorer has plied his hammer,
The leather-worker has made the stitching;
[Adorned with] dark feathers the flashing armor (jia)
Gleams and shines, throwing off light.^[32]

Ma Jun, a military engineer serving underCao Wei, devised a siege weapon which threw large stones using a wheel. This device consisted of a drum wheel attached with a curved knife. When rotated, the stones which hung on the wheel would be cut loose by the knife and launched. It is not clear how well this device worked in practice. Successful tests with roof tiles instead of stones are mentioned, but according to Liang Jieming, this contraption never made it past the testing phase and could not have been possible with the technology available at the time.^[30]

The historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms attributes a number of fictional weapons, often with special names, to certain individuals. Examples includeLiu Bei's "Paired Winding Swords" (雙股劍),Guan Yu's "Green Dragon Crescent Blade" (青龍偃月刀),Zhang Fei's "Eighteen chi Serpent Lance" (丈八蛇矛),Zhao Yun's "Blue Steel Sword" (青釭劍),Cao Cao's "Sword of Heaven" (倚天劍),Sun Jian's "Ancient Ingot Blade" (古錠刀),Cheng Pu's "Ironspine Serpent Lance" (鐵脊蛇矛), and Lü Bu's "Fangtianhua Ji" (方天畫戟), otherwise known as the "Sky Piercer" or "Sky Piercing Halberd". While these are completely fictional, theRecords of the Three Kingdoms do mention weapons unique to individuals on at least two occasions:Dian Wei's double halberd which weighed 20 kg^[33] andGongsun Zan's two-bladed spear.^[34]

TheRecords of the Three Kingdoms andAnnotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms contain two instances of single combat between generals. In 192, afterDong Zhuo had been murdered,Li Jue andGuo Si formed an army to oustWang Yun andLü Bu fromChang'an. When Guo Si approached the city from the north, Lü Bu opened the gate and offered to settle the matter by single combat. Guo Si agreed and engaged with Lü Bu, who pierced Guo Si with his lance. Guo Si's men came forth, saving their general, and both sides withdrew.^[35] Another instance of individual combat occurred betweenTaishi Ci, then serving underLiu Yao, andSun Ce. Taishi Ci was on a mission accompanied by only a single horseman when he met Sun Ce, who had 13 other men with him. Taishi Ci charged at Sun Ce and the two sides clashed in single combat. Sun Ce pierced Taishi's horse and managed to grab hold of his halberd while Taishi removed Sun's helmet. When their respective reinforcements showed up, they disengaged and the duel came to an end.^[36]

Combat between generals and officers during battle is also mentioned by the Records. In 197Yan Xing, an officer ofHan Sui, engaged withMa Chao and nearly killed him when his spear broke and pierced Ma Chao's neck.^[37] In 200Yan Liang, a general ofYuan Shao, was slain byGuan Yu, then serving underCao Cao, during theBattle of Boma.^[38][39] In 214Zhang Liao chargedSun Quan's army with only 800 men and reportedly killed ten soldiers and two officers. He then broke through the enemy ramparts and challenged Sun Quan to a duel, to which he declined.^[40]

Cao Wei was founded byCao Pi in 220 and was usurped bySima Yan'sJin dynasty in 266.

Cao Cao was the son ofCao Song, whose original surname was Xiahou but took the name of Cao as a child when he was adopted by the eunuchCao Teng. During his childhood Cao Cao studied theArt of War and was fond ofhawking and hunting with dogs. He was also considered a troublemaker and local thug in his town. At one point in his youth, Cao Cao andYuan Shao raided a wedding. Cao Cao kidnapped the bride and directed the pursuers toward Yuan Shao.^[41]Xu Shao foretold that Cao Cao would be "a good servant in time of peace, a dangerous chieftain in time of trouble".^[42]

In the 170s Cao Cao became a chief of police inLuoyang and made a name for himself as a strict enforcer of the law. He was eventually implicated and dismissed from his post in 178.^[42]

Cao Cao took part in suppressing theYellow Turban rebellion in 184 as a Commandant of Cavalry. He was then appointed Chancellor ofJinan Commandery, where he set about removing officials under the influence of the imperial family. Cao Cao became afraid of the enemies he had made at court so he left his post.^[42]

In 188, Cao Cao became a colonel of theArmy of the Western Garden. WhenDong Zhuo seized power in 189, Cao Cao fled toChenliu Commandery, where he sold his family estates and raised troops to joinYuan Shao and theCampaign against Dong Zhuo. Irritated by Yuan Shao's lack of action, Cao Cao advanced intoHe'nan Commandery only to suffer defeat at theBattle of Xingyang.^[43]

Cao Cao raised more troops inYang Province. In 191 he became Administrator ofDong Commandery for defeating the bandit chieftainBo Rao. WhenLiu Dai, the Inspector ofYan Province, died in 192 while dealing with the Yellow Turbans fromQing Province, Cao Cao succeeded him. By the end of the year Cao Cao had negotiated the surrender of the rebels, who augmented his army with 30,000 additional soldiers, known collectively as theQingzhou Troops (青州兵).^[43]

In 193 Cao Cao drove awayYuan Shu to the south. At this time however, his father Cao Song and brother Cao De were killed by some of the rogue troops ofTao Qian, the Governor ofXu Province. Cao Cao invaded Xu Province in retaliation massacring hundreds of thousands of civilians on his first campaign, but in 194 while on his second campaign against Tao Qian his former friendZhang Miao raised the flag of rebellion in Yan Province. With the aid ofLü Bu, the rebels dealt several defeats to Cao Cao, taking most of the province. Eventually the tide turned on them and Cao Cao regained his territories. Zhang Miao's family was destroyed while Lü Bu fled to Xu Province.^[43]

In 196 Cao Cao took control of the imperial court and moved it toXu city. In 197 Cao Cao came into conflict withZhang Xiu and Liu Biao. However he retreated due to news of a potential raid by Yuan Shao. In 198Liu Bei took refuge with Cao Cao and requested his aid against Lü Bu. Cao Cao laid siege to Lü Bu inXiapi Commandery and killed him that winter, taking control of Xu Province. Liu Bei rebelled and was driven away. Yuan Shao crossed the Yellow River with a large army in the spring of 200 but was too slow to mobilize. In the winter Cao Cao led a raiding party behind enemy lines and destroyed their supply train at theBattle of Guandu, causing Yuan Shao's army to disintegrate. Meanwhile, Liu Bei had been making trouble inRu'nan Commandery with the banditGong Du. With Yuan Shao no longer posing a threat, Cao Cao returned to deal with Liu Bei, driving him away to take refuge with Liu Biao.^[44]

In the summer of 202, Yuan Shao died, leaving his territory to his sons. They fought among themselves and fell prey to Cao Cao's advances. By 205 he had oustedYuan Tan andYuan Shang from their southern territories. Over the next two years he broughtJi Province and southernBing Province under his control. In the summer of 207 Cao Cao made a roundabout trip north and defeated theWuhuan at theBattle of White Wolf Mountain. They fled toGongsun Kang inLiaodong Commandery, but he beheaded them and delivered their heads to Cao Cao.^[45]

As Cao Cao prepared to campaign south in 208, Liu Biao died. His son Liu Zong surrendered while Liu Bei fled further south. Cao Cao followed and defeated Liu Bei at theBattle of Changban. Seizing the naval base atJiangling, Cao Cao moved his new river fleet downstream. His confrontation with Liu Bei and theSun Quan's generalZhou Yu culminated in defeat and the destruction of his fleet at theBattle of Red Cliffs. Failing to cross theChangjiang, Cao Cao retreated north.^[46]

In 211 Cao Cao moved west againstZhang Lu and in doing so also drew the ire ofMa Chao andHan Sui. They were outmaneuvered and defeated at theBattle of Tong Pass. In 212 Cao Cao leftXiahou Yuan behind to continue the northwestern campaign while he returned east to attack Sun Quan across theHuai River. The invasion force reached the banks of the Changjiang but failed to break the enemy defenses. Cao Cao returned toYe City in 213.^[46]

In 215 Cao Cao eliminated Zhang Lu and occupiedHanzhong Commandery. Cao Cao attacked Sun Quan again in 217 after Sun Quan's failed attack in 215. However he was never able to make it past the Changjiang defenses but was able to gain Sun Quan's nominal surrender. In the spring of 219, his general Xiahou Yuan was killed at theBattle of Mount Dingjun and Cao Cao lost his position in Hanzhong Commandery. Liu Bei's generalGuan Yu also defeatedYu Jin's fores inNanyang Commandery and laid siege toCao Ren inFancheng. However he was unable to take the city and was himself killed when Sun Quan's generalLü Meng who took advantage of the situation and attacked him from behind. Cao Cao died soon afterward on 15 March, 220. He was succeeded by his sonCao Pi.^[46]

Although primarily known as a military leader, Cao Cao also compiled a commentary on theArt of War and was a renowned poet and player of the game ofweiqi.^[46] His two most famous poems,Though the Tortoise Lives Long andShort Song Style were written during and right before the battles ofWhite Wolf Mountain andRed Cliff.

There are broadly speaking five possible operations for any army. If you can fight, fight. If you cannot fight, defend. If you cannot defend, flee. The two remaining operations include only surrender and death. If you are not willing to face bondage, then all that is left for you is to die and spare your family of the ransom.^[47]

On 11 December, 220,Cao Pi deposed the last Han emperor and proclaimed himself Emperor ofCao Wei.^[48] During his reign Cao Pi alienated his brothersCao Zhang andCao Zhi. Cao Pi deeply distrusted his close kin and reduced their powers out of suspicion of their loyalty. Cao Pi died in 226 and was succeeded by his sonCao Rui. Although Cao Rui was twenty years old, he was nonetheless appointed a regency council by his father prior to his death. By 236, three members of the regency council had died, leavingSima Yi as the primary leader of Cao Wei. Before this time,Shu Han launch attacks on the Wei borders and in 229,Zhuge Liang occupiedWudu Commandery. He was, however, unable to make any further gains during his battles against Sima Yi and died in 234.^[49] In 238 Sima Yi annexed the Gongsun state in the northwest.^[50] This was followed by a campaign intoGoguryeo in 244 and 245.^[50] Cao Rui died in 239 and was succeeded by his adopted sonCao Fang, who fell under the regency ofCao Shuang and Sima Yi.^[51]

In 249 Sima Yi killed Cao Shuang and seized power in Wei. He died two years later and was succeeded by his sonSima Shi. Cao Fang tried to retake power for himself in 254 but failed and was replaced by his cousin,Cao Mao. Sima Shi died in 255 and was succeeded by his brotherSima Zhao. In 260 Cao Mao, like his cousin, attempted to seize control of the state, but failed and died in the process. In 264 Sima Zhao conqueredShu Han, eliminating one of the Three Kingdoms. He died the following year and was succeeded by his sonSima Yan. On 8 February 266, Sima Yan deposed the last emperor of Wei,Cao Huan, and proclaimed himself Emperor of theJin dynasty.^[52]

Sima Yan went on to annex the southern state ofEastern Wu in 280, putting an end to the period of the Three Kingdoms.^[52]

Shu Han was founded byLiu Bei in 221 and was conquered byCao Wei in 263.

Liu Bei was a very distant descendant ofEmperor Jing of Han. His father Liu Hong died when he was still very young and his mother made a living by selling straw sandals. In 175 Liu Bei was sent to study at theTaixue ofLuoyang, where he became friends withGongsun Zan. Liu Bei had very little interest in books but had a knack for fighting and inspired many young men to join him. With the support of two merchants, Zhang Shiping and Su Shuang, Liu Bei was able to create a sizable following including his long time friendsGuan Yu andZhang Fei. When theYellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184 Liu Bei led his troops against them under various commanders. He did well in both campaigns but was only rewarded with a very low position in the imperial service. He abandoned his post when an officer tried to reduce his position and joinedGuanqiu Yi on an expedition against rebels inDanyang Commandery. For his service in that expedition he was rewarded with the post of assistant magistrate in a county inPingyuan Commandery. When the anti-Dong Zhuo coalition formed, Liu Bei raised troops in their service, but soon afterwards left to join his friend Gongsun Zan in the north.^[53]

Liu Bei assisted Gongsun Zan against his rivalYuan Shao in 191 and was given the post of magistrate in Pingyuan Commandery. His post didn't last long as Yuan Shao dealt a devastating blow to Gongsun Zan in 192 and Liu Bei was forced to move east to Qi Commandery. WhenTao Qian ofXu Province offered him 4,000 troops and a post inPei Commandery, Liu Bei accepted. Tao Qian died in 194 and Liu Bei succeeded him as Governor of Xu Province. In 196Yuan Shu invaded from the south and fought Liu Bei for a month at a stalemate. During this time however, Liu Bei had lostXiapi Commandery due toZhang Fei killing its Chancellor allowingLü Bu, who was at the time taking refuge in the province, to attack Liu Bei and forced him to surrender. Having defeated Liu Bei and taken control of Xu Province, Lü Bu drove away Yuan Shu's army. Though he was defeated, Liu Bei still retained Pei Commandery. When Yuan Shu attacked Liu Bei again, Lü Bu prevented his advance out of fear that Yuan Shu would become too powerful. Liu Bei continued to recruit troops until 198 when he intercepted a trade convoy from Lü Bu. Lü Bu's officersGao Shun andZhang Liao retaliated, taking Pei Commandery and forcing Liu Bei to flee toCao Cao. Cao Cao sent an army underXiahou Dun to assist Liu Bei against Lü Bu. In the autumn their army was defeated by Gao Shun. When Cao Cao joined them in the winter, they successfully laid siege to Lü Bu in Xiapi Commandery and killed him the following year.^[54]

In 199 Liu Bei was sent to intercept Yuan Shu from making contact with Yuan Shao. When Liu Bei reached Xu Province, he rebelled, killing the InspectorChe Zhou. Cao Cao's initial attempt to suppress him ended in failure but the second one in 200 succeeded. Liu Bei abandoned his family and Guan Yu, who were captured, and fled to Yuan Shao inQing Province. He was sent toRu'nan Commandery to assist the banditGong Du but suffered defeat at the hands of Cao Cao's officerCao Ren.He was however able to defeat and kill Cao Cao's officerCai Yang. Yuan Shao's army was defeated in 200 at theBattle of Guandu and Liu Bei was forced to take refuge withLiu Biao inJing Province.^[55]

Stationed on the northern frontier of Jing Province, in 202 Liu Bei achieved victory against Xiahou Dun andYu Jin at theBattle of Bowang. After that Cao Cao became preoccupied with the north while Liu Bei was recalled to court. During his stay with Liu Biao, Liu Bei recruitedZhuge Liang, who would later become the leading military figure of Shu Han. In the autumn of 208 Liu Biao died and Cao Cao moved to invade. Liu Biao's sonLiu Zong chose to surrender. Liu Bei led his followers south to theChangjiang where they were heavily defeated by Cao Cao at theBattle of Changban inNan Commandery. While Cao Cao occupied the naval base atJiangling, Liu Bei retreated to the southeast towardsXiakou, andZhou Yu, general ofSun Quan to the east, came upriver with a sizable army. Having augmented his main army with Jing Province's fleet, Cao Cao continued his advance in the winter against Zhou Yu and Liu Bei's forces arrayed on the east bank of the Changjiang. Despite his superior numbers, Cao Cao was defeated at theBattle of Red Cliffs and his fleet was destroyed by a deployment of fire ships by Sun Quan's officer,Huang Gai. In the winter of 208-209 Liu Bei has conquered most of southern Jing while Zhou Yu had captured Jiangling thus ending any hope Cao Cao had of obtaining area across the Changjiang.^[56]

AfterLiu Qi died in 208, Liu Bei became the Governor of Jing Province. Zhou Yu died in 210 and his successorLu Su convinced Sun Quan to "lend"(give) Liu Bei Nan Commandery. In 211Liu Zhang invited Liu Bei toYi Province as an ally. In 212 Liu Bei betrayed Liu Zhang and attacked him, waging a two-year war that ended in Liu Zhang's surrender and Liu Bei's conquest of Yi Province. In 215 Sun Quan demanded that Liu Bei give him all of southern Jing Province that Liu Bei had obtained. When Liu Bei denied his demands, Sun Quan sent an invasion force commanded byLü Meng andLu Su and Liu Bei sent Guan Yu to confront the two in response while he gathers troops for an inevitable battle. A settlement was eventual reached, dividing southern Jing along theXiang River. In 217 Liu Bei invadedHanzhong Commandery, which was then under the control of Cao Cao, and solidified his gains in 219 by achieving a decisive victory over the Cao army and killingXiahou Yuan.^[57]

In the autumn of 219, Liu Bei proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong at a coronation ceremony inMianyang, and established a court inChengdu. Liu Bei's general, Guan Yu, besiegedFan city, in modernXiangfan, but Cao Cao's cousinCao Ren held out and Cao Cao's officerXu Huang came to his rescue and drove Guan Yu away from Fan Castle. In the winter while Guan Yu was fighting against Cao Ren an offensive by Lü Meng into Nan Commandery ruined Guan Yu's position and he was killed by Lü Meng upon his capture. Sun Quan thus had seized southern Jing Province.^[58]

On 15 May 221, Liu Bei proclaimed himself emperor. He then attacked Sun Quan through theThree Gorges and into the middle Changjiang. The following yearLu Xun destroyed Liu Bei's line of camps and forced him to retreat to Baidi Castle with heavy losses. Liu Bei fell ill soon after the battle and upon Sun Quan being under attack by the forces ofCao Pi the two reformed their alliance. Liu Bei died in the summer of 223 and was succeeded by his sonLiu Shan, though the government was effectively under the control of Zhuge Liang as a part of Liu Bei's dying request.^[58]

Liu Shan was only 17 years old when his father died and lacked the ability to lead soZhuge Liang became de facto head of state. In 224 and 225 Zhuge Liang embarked on aSouthern Campaign which brought at least nominal submission from chieftains in the south ofYi Province. In the north Zhuge Liang madeseveral attempts to break through theQinling range, managing to occupyWudu Commandery in 229. However he was unable to press farther north in his conflicts withSima Yi and died in 234. Unlike the Sun and Cao regimes, Shu Han never managed to create anything more than an ad hoc warlord regime, probably because its leaders were not native to the region. In 264 Shu Han was conquered bySima Zhao, the de facto ruler of Cao Wei, whose sonSima Yan would go on to depose the Cao sovereign on 8 February 266, and proclaim himself emperor of theJin dynasty.^[52]

Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was founded bySun Quan in 229 and was conquered by theJin dynasty in 280.

The twinsSun Jian and Sun Qiang were born in 155 AD to an undistinguished merchant family based in the county ofFuchun,Wu Commandery,Yang province. Although his family was of no great importance, they were purportedly descendants of the military strategistSun Zi, who is traditionally credited with the authorship ofThe Art of War. Whether the claimed ancestry is true or not, Sun Jian's family played little role in the affairs of the Han dynasty, and next to nothing is known about Sun Jian's obscure lineage.^[59]

As a youth, Sun Jian was described as unusual in appearance, kind, intelligent, but fond of odd behavior. At the young age of 16 he was appointed a junior civil officer in the county administration. Sun Jian first made a name for himself at the age of 17 when he went on a trip with his father toQiantang. During the trip they heard of a band of pirates led by Hu Yu robbing nearby travelers. Sun Jian wanted to attack them while his father wanted nothing to do with the pirates. Even so, Sun Jian set out to confront the pirates. He climbed onto a hill overlooking their camp and waved his sword as if directing soldiers to attack. The pirates thought Sun Jian was part of a government force so they fled. Sun Jian chased after them and took one head as proof of his success. Thereafter, he was promoted to Commandant.^[60]

In 172, Sun Jian was appointed Major of troops in Wu Commandery to put downXu Chang's rebellion inKuaiji Commandery. Sun Jian's success against the rebels drew the attention ofZang Min, who was in overall command of local forces. With Zang Min's recommendation, Sun Jian became Assistant in the county ofYandu,Guangling Commandery. For the next ten years he remained an official inXu Province, where he gained a sizable following, and was well liked by those around him:

Wherever Sun Jian went he gained a good reputation, and the officers and people loved him and trusted him. There were always hundreds of his old friends from his home district and young adventurers who came visiting him. Sun Jian looked after them and cared for them like his own family.^[61]

When theYellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184, Sun Jian was called up byZhu Jun in Kuaiji Commandery, and appointed Associate Major. None could stand against him. Sun Jian constantly led at the forefront of his troops, being the first to scale the walls ofWancheng, dealing the last great blow to the Yellow Turbans.^[62] After the Yellow Turbans' defeat, Sun Jian was transferred over to the west to deal with theLiang Province rebellion. During his time there, he came to butt heads withDong Zhuo, who felt that Sun Jian was a good commander but lacked quality troops.^[63]

In 186, Sun Jian returned to the capital and in 187 was promoted to Grand Administrator ofChangsha Commandery. As Grand Administrator, Sun Jian destroyed the local rebelsOu Xing, Zhou Chao, andGuo Shi, even aiding neighboring commanderies, much to the consternation of his clerical officers:

I have none of the civil graces. Warfare is my work. If I cross the borders to attack some rebels, that is simply giving help to a neighbour. Even if I am committing a crime, why should I feel ashamed?^[64]

For his service in defeating the rebels, Sun Jian was enfeoffed as Marquis of Wucheng, the highest noble rank attainable for a man outside of the imperial family.^[65]

WhenDong Zhuo seized power atLuoyang in 189, Sun Jian joinedYuan Shu and theanti-Dong Zhuo coalition. When Sun Jian passed byJing Province, he killed its InspectorWang Rui as well as the Administrator ofNanyang Commandery,Zhang Zhi, and took over their troops. Sun Jian took the lead in the allied offensive but was defeated byXu Rong in 191. After recovering from his losses, Sun Jian defeatedHu Zhen and captured the capital of Luoyang. Defending the devastated city however was unfeasible, so he retreated with the Imperial Seal in tow, and passed it down to Yuan Shu. While Sun Jian was attacking Luoyang, the alliance had already broken up, andYuan Shao's generalZhou Yu (Renming) attacked his base camp. Sun Jian returned and drove back Zhou Yu's army. Yuan Shu then sent him againstLiu Biao in Jing Province, where Sun Jian died at the age of 37 in a skirmish nearXiangyang.^[66]

Together we raised loyal troops, intending to bring aid to the nation. The rebels and bandits are on the point of destruction, and yet people can act like this. Whom can I work with?^[67]

Sun Ce was still young, and though he had his rank and was now well known, all the soldiers and people called him "Young Gentleman Sun." When men heard that Young Gentleman Sun was coming, they quite lost spirit, and the local magistrates and other officials would abandon the cities and run away to hide in the hills and open country. Then he would arrive, and the men of his command respected order, and they did not dare to rob or plunder: not even chickens or dogs or vegetables were stolen. And so the people were extremely pleased, and they would all come to bring cattle and wine as a welcome to the army.^[68]

Sun Ce, son ofSun Jian, was 16 years old when his father died. His cousin, Sun Ben, whose father Sun Qiang had died in 175, took over his personal following and served underYuan Shu. When Yuan Shu was driven toJiujiang Commandery in 193, Sun Ce was given commission and sent south with some of his father's former troops. Sun Ce was defeated byZu Lang and returned north the following year. He was granted another thousand troops and sent to takeLujiang Commandery fromLu Kang. Although successful in his endeavor, he was not promoted as was promised by Yuan Shu. In 195 he was sent againstLiu Yao inYang Province. Sun Ce quickly took over the region and pushed Liu Yao toYuzhang Commandery. By 197 when Yuan Shao declared himself emperor, Sun Ce had become the dominant power in Yang Province, so he rejected his former allegiance and allied himself toCao Cao. In 198 Sun Ce invaded Lujiang Commandery and defeatedLiu Xun andHuang Zu. In 200 the Administrator of Yuzhang Commandery surrendered. At this pointYan Baihu andXu Gong rebelled, so Sun Ce returned east, killing Xu Gong. Before he could deal with Yan Baihu however, Sun Ce was ambushed and killed by Xu Gong's retainers. He was 26 at the time of death.^[69]

Sun Ce's wound was very bad, and he called in Zhang Zhao and others and said, "Now China Proper is in confusion. With the resources of Wu and Yue, and the security of the Yangzi, we have enough to [keep aloof and] look on while others are fighting. Do you all try your best to aid my younger brother." Then he called Sun Quan, fastened the seal and ribbon to his belt, and said to him, "To raise the forces east of the Yangzi, to decide the opportunities between two battle lines, and to fight for supremacy in the empire: for that, you are not my equal. To raise the worthy and grant office to able men, so that each gives all his effort to hold the lands of the east: in that I am not equal to you."^[70]

Sun Quan was brave, and on occasion even foolhardy. We are told that he took delight in hunting tigers, and on at least one occasion an animal got close enough to tear the saddle of his horse. Later, he was persuaded to have a special carriage made, with some protection and loopholes to shoot from inside, but it was still a dangerous sport and it is said that Sun Quan took delight in being attacked by several wild beasts at a time.^[71]

Sun Quan succeeded his elder brother and spent the next two years studying. In 203 Sun Quan attacked and destroyedHuang Zu's fleet. In 204 he dealt with a rebellion inDanyang Commandery which killed his brotherSun Yi. In 205 his officerHe Qi began expanding into modernFujian and by 208 a full commandery had been created in the area. The attack on Huang Zu renewed in 207 and Sun Quan's forces successfully defeated and killed him in 208 at theBattle of Jiangxia.^[72]

Liu Biao died that year and his sonLiu Zong surrendered toCao Cao. AsLiu Bei andLiu Qi fled south, Cao Cao requested Sun Quan's support, but Sun Quan decided to resist the northern encroachment instead and sent his generalsZhou Yu andCheng Pu to support Liu Bei's cohort. Despite Cao Cao's overwhelming numerical superiority, his forces failed to cross theChangjiang and were defeated at theBattle of Red Cliff by an attack of fire ships from Sun Quan's officerHuang Gai.Cao Ren managed to hold ontoJiangling for another year before retreating north.^[73]

Liu Qi died soon afterwards andJing Province was split between Liu Bei and Sun Quan. While Sun Quan's forces were preparing to launch an invasion ofYi Province ruled byLiu Zhang, his general Zhou Yu fell ill and died in 209. Zhou Yu's successorLu Su convinced Sun Quan to let Liu Bei "borrow"Nan Commandery in order to stabilize the situation on the western frontier. Meanwhile, Sun Quan established his capital atJianye, in modernNanjing. Sun Quan's attempts to capture territory north of theChangjiang ended in failure both in 208 and in 215. However, when he demanded the "return" of Nan Commandery from Liu Bei in 215, and was denied, Sun Quan moved west and occupied the commanderies ofJiangxia,Changsha, andGuiyang.^[74]

In 217 Cao Cao made a major attack on the south. Despite failing to achieve any real gains, Cao Cao stationed a substantial army in the area, threatening Sun Quan's territory forcing Sun Quan to act as a figurative subordinate to Cao Cao. In 219 Sun Quan's generalLü Meng attackedGuan Yu's position in Jing Province on advice from Sima Yi during Guan Yu's attack on Fan Castle. Guan Yu was caught off guard and killed while the southern province fell under Sun Quan's control. Liu Bei retaliated in 221 but failed to make any headway and the invasion was defeated by Sun Quan's generalLu Xun. In 226 Sun Quan launched attacks towards the south and annexedJiaozhou. In 229, Sun Quan declared himself emperor of Eastern Wu, creating the last of the Three Kingdoms.^[75]

For the next 20 years, Sun Quan conducted several military campaigns in the north as well as an expedition toYizhou in 230, but nothing ever came of these ventures. Noted for his longevity, Sun Quan was nevertheless unsuccessful as a military commander in comparison to his peers Liu Bei and Cao Cao. He died in 252 and was succeeded by his sonSun Liang.^[76]

After the death ofSun Quan, the dynasty became paralyzed by infighting.Sun Liang assassinated his guardianZhuge Ke under the influence of a distant relativeSun Jun. When Sun Jun died in 256, he was succeeded by his cousinSun Lin. In 258 Sun Liang sought to rid himself of his overseers but failed and was dethroned. He was replaced bySun Xiu, sixth son of Sun Quan, then 22 years old. Sun Xiu staged a coup against Sun Lin and seized power for himself. Sun Xiu died in 264 and was succeeded bySun Hao. However, by this time he could do little to stop the might of theJin dynasty, which had just recently conqueredShu Han. Eastern Wu would itself be conquered in 280.^[77]

Dong Zhuo and his brotherDong Min were born toDong Junya (hailing fromLintao,Longxi Commandery) inYingchuan Commandery. As a youth, Dong Zhuo was reputed to possess immense strength and to carry two bows at each side. In 165 he became a major under Zhang Huan. For his service in defeatingQiang rebels, Dong Zhuo was promoted through the imperial ranks until he became Administrator ofHedong Commandery in the early 180s. In the summer of 184, Dong Zhuo was dispatched to take over overall operations against theYellow Turban Rebellion, however he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and dismissed in the autumn. Dong Zhuo was then dispatched as a subordinate general underZhang Wen against theLiang Province rebellion. In late 185, Dong Zhuo andBao Hong defeated the Liang rebels atMeiyang inYoufufeng Commandery. However, when they gave chase to the rebel forces, they were surrounded and forced to fight their way out. Dong Zhuo disguised his army as fishermen to escape the enemy forces. When they passed by, Dong Zhuo had his men destroy the river dam, blocking the enemy's path, and securing their retreat. Dong Zhuo refused to obey a summons from Zhang Wen, whose staff officerSun Jian recommended he execute Dong Zhuo. Dong Zhuo later served in the imperial army against another group of rebel forces laying siege toChencang in Youfufeng Commandery. The commanding generalHuangfu Song defeated the rebels without heeding any of the advice Dong Zhuo gave him. It was said that Dong Zhuo was arrogant and insubordinate.^[78]

In 189,Emperor Ling of Han died. General-in-ChiefHe Jin called on Dong Zhuo to support his elimination of the eunuchs from power. However, by the time he reachedLuoyang, He Jin had already been killed by the eunuchs, who were in turn killed by the guards. On 25 September, 189, Dong Zhuo took possession of the emperorLiu Bian and his brotherLiu Xie, establishing his puppet regime in Luoyang. On 28 September he forced Liu Bian to abdicate in favor of his brother Liu Xie. Then he killed Liu Bian a few days later. In the spring of 190 the governors in the east formed a coalition and led aCampaign against Dong Zhuo. Pressured by the enemy alliance, Dong Zhuo moved the court west toChang'an in the summer after plundering Luoyang. In the spring of 191 Luoyang was captured byYuan Shu's general Sun Jian. On 22 May, 192, Dong Zhuo was killed byWang Yun andLü Bu, who were soon overthrown by Dong Zhuo's former officers,Li Jue,Guo Si andFan Chou.^[78]

In 194 there was a brief war withMa Teng andHan Sui who were defeated by Guo Si and Fan Chou. In 195 Li Jue killed Fan Chou and took over his troops. Guo Si turned on Li Jue and infighting between them went on for months until a ceasefire was called. In the confusion of the conflict, the emperor was able to escape Chang'an and fled east with the help of several supporters. The emperor reached Luoyang in 196 and was then taken toYingchuan Commandery byCao Cao. In 197 Guo Si was killed by his officer Wu Xi. In 198 a local warlordDuan Wei killed Li Jue.^[79]

Gongsun Du was born in Xiangping (Liaoyang,Liaoning). In his early years, Du's father fled toXuantu Commandery, where Du became an office runner. Du attracted the support of the governor Gongsun Yu, whose daughter he eventually married. He rose up the ranks of officialdom inJi Province until he became regional inspector.^[80]

Gongsun Du was appointed Administrator ofLiaodong Commandery byDong Zhuo in 189 on the recommendation ofXu Rong. As a result of his lowly origins, Du harbored an intense hatred for the elite landowning class. Once he became administrator, Du carried out his vendetta against the wealthy by publicly flogging to death the Magistrate of Xiangping and extirpating the gentry. Du dominated the northeast and expanded into the territory ofGoguryeo and theWuhuan. When Cao Cao attempted to bestow titles upon Du, he rejected them and proclaimed himself king. Du died in 204 and was succeeded by his son,Gongsun Kang.^[81][82] In 204 Kang expanded into Goguryeo and createdDaifang Commandery. When the Wuhuan were defeated byCao Cao in 207,Yuan Shang,Yuan Xi, and the Wuhuan leaders Louban and Supuyan fled to Kang. Kang killed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao.^[83] In 208, Kang sent aid to Balgi in support of his claim to theGoguryeo throne. Accounts differ on whether or not Balgi succeeded. The 12th centurySamguk Sagi says he was defeated by Gyesu, younger brother ofSansang of Goguryeo, whereas Chinese records say that the invasion won, conquering territory where Balgi was settled.^[84] Regardless, in 209 Kang invaded Goguryeo again, took some territory and Goguryeo was forced to move its capital further east.^[85] Kang died in 220 when his children were too young to rule, so his brotherGongsun Gong succeeded him. Gong maintained his independence, albeit while accepting titles issued byCao Pi. Gong became ill and was replaced by his nephewGongsun Yuan in 228.^[86] Yuan ruled independently untilSima Yi invaded in 238 and annexed his territory.^[87]

Gongsun Zan was born to a family of high officials and received education fromLu Zhi andLiu Kuan, in the process becoming friends withLiu Bei. He took office as a local officer inLiaoxi Commandery, where the administrator was so impressed with his appearance and booming voice that he gave his daughter to him in marriage. Later on, Zan became assistant magistrate of a county inLiaodong Commandery and made a name for himself fighting theWuhuan andXianbei. He was particularly known for leading a unit of mounted archers who only rode white horses. It was said that he was so well known among the Xianbei that they used his image for target practice. Despite Zan's success in halting Xianbei raids on Han territory, he was dismissed for losing a large portion of his men in an attack against numerically superior forces. Zan was eventually reappointed and given command of Wuhuan auxiliaries in 187 to deal with theLiang Province rebellion. For his service he was promoted to Commandant of Cavalry and went on to defeat the rebelsZhang Ju,Zhang Chun, and the Wuhuan chieftainQiuliju in 188. However Qiuliju escaped and surrendered to the governor ofYou Province,Liu Yu. Liu Yu was rewarded with rank and enfeoffment, making Zan resentful of him.^[88]

WhenDong Zhuo took power, he made Gongsun Zan a general in charge of Ji county inGuangyang Commandery underLiu Yu, who became Grand Marshal. In 191 Zan defeated a group ofYellow Turbans moving north from theShandong Peninsula. His cousinGongsun Yue died at the hands ofYuan Shao while on a mission toYuan Shu, making the two enemies. He then seized a part ofJi Province but was badly defeated the next year. Recouping his losses, Zan defeated an invasion by Cui Juye and sentTian Kai to invadeQing Province, which was also defeated. In 193 a truce was arranged, but Yuan Shao's ally Liu Yu attacked Zan anyway, and was defeated and killed. In 195 insurgents led byXianyu Fu andYan Rou removed Zan from power with the assistance of Yuan Shao's troops. Zan retreated to Yi city where he secluded himself with his harem. He managed to repulse one attack byQu Yi before Yuan Shao brought his main army in 198 and laid siege to the city. Zan sent his son Xu to seek aid fromZhang Yan, leader of theHeishan bandits. However, by the time reinforcements arrived, Yuan Shao's sappers had already breached Zan's fortifications and Zan killed himself and his family rather than surrender. Gongsun Xu was later killed by theChuge tribe of theXiongnu.^[89]

Kong Rong was a descendant ofConfucius born in 153 to a minor government official,Kong Zhou, inLu Commandery. As the sixth child Kong Rong showed great wit and harbored aspirations beyond his age. In 169, the reformist Zhang Jian fled the court in fear of the eunuchs and sought refuge at the Kong estate. Kong Rong hid him from the authorities until he left, but they came back later and arrested Kong Rong as well as his brother Kong Bao. Kong Bao claimed responsibility, arguing that Zhang Jian initially sought his aid while his brother only acted as the agent. He was executed.^[90]

In the late 170s, Kong Rong joined the offices ofYang Ci, from which position he fought the influence of the palace eunuchs. In 184, Kong Rong sought an audience withHe Jin, who gave him employment in the Imperial Censorate. Kong Rong resigned from his position on grounds of disagreements with the head of the Censorate, Zhao She. Later he became General of the Household in charge of the palace guards.^[91]

WhenDong Zhuo took power in 189, Kong Rong opposed the deposition ofLiu Bian. As a result, Kong Rong was demoted and sent to deal withBeihai Commandery, which was experiencing serious troubles with banditry. As Chancellor ofBeihai Commandery, Kong Rong sought to restore order by settling the people and building schools. However he was criticized as pretentious and ineffectual, having done little to deal with theYellow Turbans and local bandits. In 193 he was attacked by the bandit leaderGuan Hai. Kong Rong sent his subordinateTaishi Ci to seek aid fromLiu Bei. Liu Bei sent a relief force and scattered the bandit army. In 196Yuan Shao's sonYuan Tan attacked Beihai Commandery, but Kong Rong had made no preparations, and instead spent his time in literary pursuits. When Yuan Tan captured Beihai Commandery, Kong Rong fled toCao Cao, who made him Court Architect. Kong Rong constantly demeaned Cao Cao's achievements and made fun of him but was tolerated due to his popularity at court. In 208 Kong Rong finally went too far and was killed for ridiculing Cao Cao in a self-righteous manner. His son and daughter were also executed.^[92]

Liu Biao, a distant descendant ofEmperor Jing of Han, was born in 142 inShanyang Commandery. As a child, he studied under the Administrator ofNanyang Commandery,Wang Chang. In the 160s, Liu Biao joined the reformist faction at theTaixue ofLuoyang. As a result, he was ousted from office in 169. When the Great Proscription came to an end in 184, Liu Biao was reinstated as a clerk in the offices of General-in-ChiefHe Jin.^[93]

In 190,Sun Jian killedWang Rui, the Inspector ofJing Province. Liu Biao was appointed the new Inspector ofJing Province, butYuan Shu was already in control ofNanyang Commandery, so he went further south and set up base inXiangyang. He was attacked by Sun Jian in 191, but Sun Jian died almost immediately after in a skirmish. In the late 190s a rebellion byZhang Xiu disrupted Liu Biao's territory until Zhang Xiu died in 200. He gave refuge toLiu Bei, who urged him to attackCao Cao in 207, but Liu Biao declined. In 208 Liu Biao was invaded by Cao Cao in the north andSun Quan in the south. Liu Biao died that autumn and his son Liu Zong surrendered to Cao Cao.^[94]

Liu Yan was a descendant ofLiu Yu, the fifth son ofEmperor Jing of Han. Seeking to distance himself from the turmoil at the capital, Liu Yan sought and received appointment as Governor ofYi Province in 188. He set his headquarters atMianzhu inGuanghan Commandery. Soon after he raised troops in the name ofDong Zhuo and appointed the sect leadersZhang Lu andZhang Xiu as officers. They were sent to attackSu Gu, the Administrator ofHanzhong Commandery, who defied Liu Yan. After Su Gu was defeated, Zhang Lu took Hanzhong Commandery for himself and eliminated Zhang Xiu. Liu Yan recruited troops from migrants and refugees fromCentral China, creating a unit known as theDongzhou Troops (東州兵dongzhoubing). The Administrator ofJianwei Commandery, Ren Qi and loyalistJia Long attacked Liu Yan in 191, but they were defeated and killed. After moving his capital to Luo city, also in Guanghan, Liu Yan formed an alliance withMa Teng in 194 and attackedLi Jue's regime inChang'an. The campaign ended in failure and Liu Yan's sons Fan and Dan died in the attempt. Liu Yan died the same year after having moved his capital toChengdu inShu Commandery, where his sonLiu Zhang succeeded him.^[95]

Liu Zhang put down an insurrection caused by Hu Mao, an agent of the Chang'an regime. In 200 Zhang Lu openly defied Liu Zhang, who in retaliation killed Zhang Lu's mother, who had been staying at his court as hostage. Zhang Lu invaded Liu Zhang's territory, occupying northernBa Commandery. A follower of Liu Zhang also rebelled at this time due to grievances with the Dongzhou Troops, but he was defeated and killed. AfterCao Cao's defeat at theBattle of Red Cliffs in 208, Liu Zhang formed an alliance withLiu Bei. When Cao Cao's generalZhong Yao was sent against Zhang Lu in 211, Liu Zhang invited Liu Bei to Guanghan hoping that someone from the same imperial clan would help him. Liu Bei spent the next year complaining about the lack of supplies, then turned on Liu Zhang, killed his officers, and waged war on him. By 214 Liu Bei's forces had advanced to Chengdu, where a siege lasting several weeks occurred before Liu Zhang surrendered. Liu Zhang was exiled toJing Province where he eventually entered the court ofSun Quan when his generalLü Meng defeatedGuan Yu in 219.^[96]

Lü Bu was skilled in horse archery, possessing strength surpassing others, and was called the Flying General... Lü Bu also had with him a good horse named Red Hare capable of galloping so fast it could jump over city moats... There was a popular saying at the time, "Lü Bu [who stands out] among men, the Red Hare [which stands out] among horses"^[97][98][99]

Lü Bu killed his patronDing Yuan at the request ofDong Zhuo and became his bodyguard. In 190 Lü Bu was sent to plunder the tombs ofLuoyang. His behavior was unruly and disruptive to his unit, causing his commanderHu Zhen to suffer defeat at the hands ofSun Jian. Lü Bu was also defeated and driven from Luoyang. Conflict between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu soon came to a head and in 192 Lü Bu conspired withWang Yun to kill Dong Zhuo. After ambushing and killing Dong Zhuo, Wang Yun's government was toppled byLi Jue in less than a month and Lü Bu was forced to flee toYuan Shu but was turned away because of the unruly behavior of his men. Next Lü Bu visitedZhang Yang and then left when Li Jue offered a price for his head. In 193 he participated inYuan Shao's campaign against theBlack Mountain bandits. Once again the brutality of his men caused consternation and Yuan Shao sent Lü Bu back to Luoyang and ordered his escort to kill Lü Bu. Lü Bu managed to avoid assassination and fled. In 194 Lü Bu joinedZhang Chao andZhang Miao's rebellion againstCao Cao inYan Province. While initially successful, the rebel forces failed to takePuyang inDong Commandery, and the tide turned against them. By the summer of 195 Lü Bu was forced to flee again, this time toLiu Bei inXu Province. In 196 Yuan Shu attacked Liu Bei. Lü Bu switched sides, capturing Liu Bei's assets inXiapi Commandery, and taking his surrender. After defeating Liu Bei, Lü Bu turned on Yuan Shu and drove back his army. The defeated Liu Bei later fled to Cao Cao, who in 198 sentXiahou Dun to assist Liu Bei against Lü Bu. Lü Bu was unable to coordinate his commanders, who acted separately, and was driven back to Xiapi Commandery where his officers eventually betrayed him, opening the gates for the opposing army. When Lü Bu tried to persuade Cao Cao to accept him as a subordinate, Liu Bei argued against it. Lü Bu was strangled to death.^[100]

Shi Xie was born toShi Ci inCangwu Commandery in the year 137. He attended theTaixue inLuoyang before returning home upon his father's death and took up the post of Administrator ofJiaozhi Commandery in the 180s.^[101]

After the Administrator Zhu Fu was killed in 190, Shi Xie and his brothers Yi, Wei, and Wu took full control ofJiaozhou. He ruled from his capitalLong Biên (Luy Lâu) in modernHanoi and brought prosperity to the region, taking in many refugees from the north. His brothers Yi, Wei, and Wu administered the commanderies of Hepu, Jiuzhen, and Nanhai respectively.^[102][101]

In 192, the southernmost district ofRinan Commandery,Xianglin, broke away and became the Kingdom ofLâm Ấp, otherwise known asChampa.^[103] Aside from this incident, Shi Xie's realm was relatively secluded from the state of endemic warfare and turmoil to the north. He provided support to the general Zhang Jin, situated inCangwu andYulin commanderies, in his conflicts withLiu Biao from 196 to 205, but stopped after the general's death. Shi Xie played no further role in the military affairs of the warlord states.^[104]

When Shi Wu died in 200, the Shi family lost control of thePearl River region, but Shi Xie contented himself with ruling the reduced portion of Jiaozhi. Shi Xie was well disposed towards the northern warlords and acquiesced toSun Quan's chosen Inspector of Jiaozhi,Bu Zhi, who visitedNanhai Commandery in 211. Shi Xie then sent his son Xin to Sun Quan as hostage in 217. Reduced to onlyJiaozhi Commandery, Shi Xie died in 226 at the age of 90. His sonShi Hui was given the post of prefect inJiuzhen Commandery while Chen Shi became prefect of Jiaozhi Commandery. At this point Sun Quan's agent,Lü Dai, decided to split Jiaozhou in half with the northern portion (Guangzhou) assigned to himself and the southern half, the new Jiaozhou, to Dai Liang. Shi Hui refused to let Dai Liang into the province and decided to rebel. His officials opposed him in rebelling against Sun Quan and laid siege to him in his capital, however they were unable to breach the city gates and were eventually forced to make peace. Lü Dai contacted Shi Hui's cousin and sent him with an offer of clemency on the condition that Shi Hui surrender peacefully. Shi Hui accepted the offer and together with his brothers and sons surrendered. Lü Dai reneged on his promise and beheaded them all, after which he abolished the two provinces, once again merging them together into Jiaozhou.^[105][106]

After Shi Xie's death, the southern frontier continued to be viewed as an area of barbarians in the Han imagination. WhenXue Zong visited the south in 231, he described the place in the following manner:

Customs are not uniform and languages are mutually unintelligible so that several interpreters are needed to communicate... The people are like birds and beasts; they wear their hair tied up and go barefoot, while for clothing they simply cut a hole in a piece of cloth for their head or they fasten their garments on the left side [in barbarian style]... If district-level officials are appointed, it is the same as if they were not... According to the records, civilizing activities have been going on for over four hundred years, but, according to what I myself have seen during many years of travel since my arrival here, the actual situation is something else... In Rinan Prefecture, men and women go naked without shame. In short, it can be said that these people are on the same level as bugs.^[107]

Shi Xie is primarily remembered today inVietnam asSĩ Nhiếp, the father of education andBuddhism, which he patronized greatly during his reign. He was credited with compiling a dictionary ofClassical Chinese terms explained in vernacularVietnamese language several centuries later. According toStephen O'Harrow, Shi Xie was "the first Vietnamese."^[101][102]

Yuan Shao was born to a highly distinguished official family who had held office as one of theThree Ducal Ministers, the three highest posts below emperor, for three generations. The exact circumstances of Yuan Shao's birth and lineage are not clear but it's said that he was the son of Yuan Feng by a concubine, who then chose to adopt the lineage of his uncleYuan Cheng (who lacked an heir). This was a source of contention between Shao and his half brotherYuan Shu, who was the son of Feng and his chief wife, making him senior to Shao within the Feng family. However, because Shao was adopted into the family of Feng's elder brother Cheng, he became the senior cousin, and higher up in the Yuan hierarchy than Shu. Envious of Shao's greater prestige and popularity, Shu referred to him as "our family slave" and claimed that Shao was not a true member of the Yuan clan.^[108]

Yuan Shao grew to be a handsome young man and a popular leader among his peers inLuoyang. At some point, he andCao Cao raided a wedding, but after Cao Cao kidnapped the bride, he directed the pursuers to Shao. In the late 160s, Shao, then in his 20s, aided the reformist faction in escaping persecution by the eunuchs. After that he received appointment as a county magistrate inDong Commandery. He then left office for six years to mourn the death of his adoptive mother and father. Upon returning to Luoyang, Shao entered the service of the Imperial Censorate, and rose through the ranks until he became a colonel in the Army of the Western Garden by 188.^[109]

Following the death ofEmperor Ling of Han in 189, Yuan Shao urgedHe Jin to destroy the eunuchs. When He Jin was killed, Shao led a massacre of the eunuchs. AfterDong Zhuo came to power, Shao fled east and formed a coalition army to embark on aCampaign against Dong Zhuo. Based inSuanzao inChenliu Commandery, the coalition army met with little success throughout 190, so in 191 Shao took overJi Province fromHan Fu. When the coalition dissolved, Shao sent men against Yuan Shu's officerSun Jian inYingchuan Commandery.Gongsun Zan attacked Shao but was defeated atJie Bridge betweenJulu andQinghe commanderies. Shao set his capital at the city ofYe (Hebei) inWei Commandery. In 193 Shao attacked theBlack Mountain bandits and forced them into hiding. In 195,Zang Hong rebelled against Shao but was defeated and sentenced to death. Shao's follower Chen Rong criticized him of dishonorable conduct and was executed as well.^[110] With the support of theWuhuan, he made the final attack on Gongsun Zan in 198 and eliminated him the beginning of next year. In 199 Shao became hostile to Cao Cao and moved against him. His army moved too slow however and in early winter of 200, Cao Cao destroyed two of his supply trains at theBattle of Guandu. His army scattered and fled. Shao became ill and died in 202. He was succeeded by his sonYuan Shang.^[111]

Cao Cao attacked in the autumn. By the summer of 203 Yuan Shang had been defeated and driven back to Ye, however Cao Cao decided to withdraw at this point. Shang came into open conflict with his brotherYuan Tan, who fled east. In 204 Shang besieged his brother atPingyuan Commandery but Cao Cao moved against him at Ye and forced him to flee toZhongshan Commandery where Tan attacked him. Shang fled again to his other brotherYuan Xi inYou Province while Cao Cao attacked Tan atNanpi inBohai Commandery and killed him. In 205 Shang and Xi were ejected from their territory by mutineers and fled to theWuhuan underTadun, but Tadun was defeated by Cao Cao at theBattle of White Wolf Mountain in 207. They fled for the last time, this time toGongsun Kang, who killed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao.^[112]

Yuan Shu was born to a highly distinguished official family who had held office as one of theThree Ducal Ministers, the three highest posts below emperor, for three generations. Despite acquiring a respectful reputation for himself and later becoming General of the Household Rapid as Tigers, Yuan Shu was ultimately overshadowed by his more popular and successful half-brotherYuan Shao.^[112]

Yuan Shu and Yuan Shao urgedHe Jin to kill the eunuchs atLuoyang. WhenDong Zhuo took over, Yuan Shu fled toNanyang Commandery. His army took part in theCampaign against Dong Zhuo underSun Jian's command, but when Sun Jian returned fromLuoyang, Yuan Shao became hostile and sentZhou Ang against him. Yuan Shu allied withGongsun Zan while his half brother allied withLiu Biao. Sun Jian soon died in a skirmish while on campaign against Liu Biao so Yuan Shu withdrew east toChenliu Commandery where he was driven away as well byCao Cao in 193. He then retreated toShouchun inJiujiang Commandery. The next year Yuan Shu sentWu Jing against Governor ofYang Province,Liu Yao, with the extra help ofSun Ce in 195. In 196 Yuan Shu defeatedLiu Bei inXu Province with the aid ofLü Bu, who then changed sides and forced Yuan Shu's forces back to Shouchun. In 197 Yuan Shu declared himself emperor of the Zhong dynasty, which made everybody hate him. Sun Ce abandoned him whileCao Cao seized territory north of theHuai River. His fledgling dynasty was left in ruin and in 199 Yuan Shu attempted to escape toQing Province, but was driven back to Shouchun, where he died outside the city.^[113] His family fled toLiu Xun, Administrator ofLujiang Commandery. Liu Xun later fled to Cao Cao when Sun Ce captured his capital. He was executed for extortion and corruption at a later date.^[114]

Zhang Lu was the head of aDaoist movement known as theWay of the Five Pecks of Rice. in 190Liu Yan, Governor ofYi Province, sent Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu (not related) against the rebellious Administrator ofHanzhong Commandery,Su Gu. Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu killed Su Gu and took the territory for themselves. Zhang Lu killed Zhang Xiu and established a theocracy with religiousLibationers as the primary civil authority. He preached confession of sins and the use of charms to cure illness. Minor wrongdoers were forced to become public servants who provided refreshments for travelers on the road. Alcohol was banned. In 200 Zhang Lu moved againstLiu Zhang and seized northernBa Commandery. His mother, who had been kept as a captive by Liu Zhang, was killed. In 214 Zhang Lu providedMa Chao with some troops but when Ma Chao asked for more, he refused, after which Ma Chao turned toLiu Bei. In 215Cao Cao attacked Zhang Lu. After his brother Zhang Wei was defeated, Zhang Lu fled to the Zong and Banshun natives for protection but they surrendered to Cao Cao and Zhang Lu was forced to submit as well. Cao Cao treated him well and his family was given honored positions at court. Zhang Lu died inYe city in 216.^[115]

Born inYunzhong Commandery,Zhang Yang was noted for his courage and fighting skills. He served as Assistant Officer for Military Affairs inBing Province before joining the Army of the Western Garden as an acting major in 188.^[116]

In 189, General-in-ChiefHe Jin sent Zhang Yang to attack the hill bandits inShangdang Commandery, however He Jin died later that year andDong Zhuo seized power at the capital. Zhang Yang tried to seize Shangdang Commandery for himself. While he failed to oust the commandery's Administrator, he managed to gather several thousand followers while plundering the local counties. When the coalition againstDong Zhuo formed, he attempted to join it, but his partner the wandering Xiongnu mercenaryYufuluo forced him to attackYuan Shao instead. They were defeated at the city ofYe. After that Zhang Yang received commission from Dong Zhuo as Administrator ofHenei Commandery, so he based himself at Yewang across theYellow River fromLuoyang. In 192 and 193 he gave refuge toLü Bu. WhenCao Cao attacked Lü Bu atXiapi in 198, Zhang Yang attempted to strike Cao Cao from the rear, but was killed by his own officerYang Chou, who held a grudge against Lü Bu. After he defected to Cao Cao, Yang Chou was in turn killed by another officer Sui Gu who then attempted to seek help from Yuan Shao. He was defeated the following year by Cao Cao's officersShi Huan andCao Ren^[116][117]

Born to Gao Gong inChenliu Commandery,Gao Gan was a nephew ofYuan Shao. He played an instrumental role in convincingHan Fu to hand overJi Province to Yuan Shao in 191. As reward, Yuan Shao made Gao Gan Governor ofBing Province. In 202, Gao Gan joined theSouthern Xiongnu chanyuHuchuquan in attackingHedong Commandery. They were defeated and Huchuquan surrendered toCao Cao's officerZhong Yao. Gao Gan surrendered to Cao Cao in 204 but felt unsatisfied with his new position as Inspector of Bing Province. In 205, Gao Gao seizedShangdang Commandery and invaded Hedong Commandery. Gao Gan failed to takeYe and was driven back. In 206, Cao Cao personally led an attack on Gao Gao, forcing him to flee to the Xiongnu and then to the south inJing Province, where he was captured and killed.^[118]

Han Fu was appointed Governor ofJi Province in 189. While he nominally participated in theCampaign against Dong Zhuo, he stayed at the city ofYe. After the coalition broke up, he became hostile toYuan Shao in 191 and denied him supplies. Using his family connections, Yuan Shao intimidated Han Fu into handing over his position to him. After doing so, Han Fu's family was constantly harassed until they fled toZhang Miao. He eventually killed himself.^[119]

Liu Chong, otherwise known as Prince Min ofChen, was the son of Liu Cheng. In 173, Liu Chong and former Chancellor Wei Yin offered sacrifices toHuang–Lao for good fortune, but the practice was seen as reprehensible by the senior officials. The official Shi Qian accused Wei Yin and Liu Chong of impiety. An official inquiry was carried out which resulted in the arrest of both Shi Qian and Wei Yin. They were both executed and no further investigation of Liu Chong occurred. Liu Chong was said to be a fine shot with the crossbow and had written a treatise on the weapon called theNushe bifa. When theYellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184, he raised several thousand archers and brought them to the capital where his presence quelled any unrest. In 190, he formed an alliance withDong Zhuo and styled himself General Who Supports Han while his Chancellor Luo Jun maintained his territory in Chen Commandery. WhenYuan Shu's request for supplies was denied by Luo Jun in 197, he sent assassins who killed both Luo Jun and Liu Chong.^[120]

Liu Yao, son of Liu Yu and nephew ofLiu Chong, was born in 157 inDonglai Commandery. At the age of 18 he saved his uncle Liu Wei from a kidnapping. He became a county magistrate inLiang but resigned because he disapproved of the favor shown by the Chancellor to eunuchs. Liu Yao then served as an Assistant Officer inQing Province and in the clerical bureau at the capital, but refused an invitation to join the Censorate.^[121]

In the 190sLiu Yao established himself inDanyang Commandery while his officerZhu Hao heldYuzhang Commandery. In 195Sun Ce defeated Liu Yao's forces and forced him to flee to Yuzhang Commandery, whereZe Rong had previously seized power. He eliminated Ze Rong but otherwise played no role in external affairs until 198 when he died. His family entered the court of Sun Ce and were treated well.^[122]

Liu Yu, son of Liu Shu, held local office his county and became a magistrate inDonghai Commandery. It was said that his virtue protected the county from a plague of locusts. He was promoted to Inspector ofYou Province, where he wore the local clothing of fur and felt. His government was praised by the people and he received regular tribute from the non-Chinese. In 184, he was sent as Chancellor toGanling, where his record of humane rule settled the hotbed ofYellow Turban discontent. In 188, he was sent back toYou Province. As Governor, he persuaded theWuhuan chieftainQiuliju to surrender and murdered the rebelZhang Chun.Yuan Shao suggested that he be made regent instead ofDong Zhuo or even take the throne for himself, but Liu Yu declined. Under Liu Yu's governorship, You Province prospered as a result of policies encouraging silk production, market trading, and production of salt and iron. The province's prosperity and low grain prices attracted many southern refugees. In 191 Liu Yu allied with Yuan Shao, andGongsun Zan withYuan Shu. In 193 Liu Yu attempted to oust Gongsun Zan, who had built a fortified camp within the walls of his capital inGuangyang Commandery, but failed. Gongsun Zan counterattacked, driving him from the city. Liu Yu was captured a few days later and executed.^[123]

Lu Kang was born in 125 to an influential local family ofKuaiji Commandery. He served as an officer under the Administrator Li Su, who was later executed for his cowardice. Lu Kang escorted the Administrator's body home to carry out a full mourning, for which he gained a reputation for loyalty. He went on to become a magistrate inBohai Commandery and ended the military levy there and governed the territory through honest and generous government. In 185, Lu Kang protested the extravagance and corruption involved in the rebuilding of palaces inLuoyang and as a result was dismissed for a time before he became a consultant at the capital. In 188, he became Administrator ofLujiang Commandery in 188. He put down the rebel chieftain Huang Rang and continued to send reports and tribute to the capital even as the Han dynasty fell apart. In 193,Yuan Shu asked Lu Kang for supplies and was refused. Yuan sentSun Ce against Lu Kang, who surrendered after a two-year siege, in 195. Lu Kang died a month later.^[124]

Huang Ang was the clan leader ofJiuquan Commandery until his family was massacred by the AdministratorXu Yi in 210. He subsequently attacked Xu Yi and killed him. Huang Ang was himself killed in 210 by the vigilanteYang Feng. His relative Huang Hua succeeded him and joined forces with Zhang Jin to opposeCao Wei in 220. When Zhang Jin was killed Huang Hua surrendered.^[125]

Ma Ai was the Administrator ofDunhuang Commandery until he died in 220.Zhang Gong succeeded him and willingly assistedCao Wei in re-establishing control over the northwest.^[126]

Sheng Xian was a close friend ofKong Rong and Administrator ofWu Commandery. He left office in 193 took refuge with his former officerGao Dai. It's not clear under what circumstances he left. One account suggests he became ill, another thatXu Gong took over by force. Sheng Xian was eventually killed bySun Quan, who viewed him as a threat to his own authority.^[127]

Tao Qian became Inspector ofXu Province in after 185. He dealt with theYellow Turbans and restored order to the region, making the province prosperous and a refuge for displaced peoples. In 191 Tao Qian sent 3,000 men to supportZhu Jun againstDong Zhuo. In 193 he entered a loose alliance withYuan Shu andGongsun Zan, but that winter Tao Qian's soldiers killedCao Song,Cao Cao's father. In retaliation Cao Cao brought the full force of his army down on him, ravagingPengcheng andXiapi commanderies. Tao Qian fled toDonghai Commandery in 194 and received the aid ofTian Kai andLiu Bei, but died from illness soon afterwards.^[128]

Wang Lang was a scholar who studied theBook of Changes and compiled a commentary on it called theYi Zhuan. He served as a gentleman cadet and county magistrate inPengcheng Commandery. He left office when his patron Yang Ci died and refused invitations from the capital. In 191, Wang Lang became Headquarters Officer toTao Qian. Tao Qian made Wang Lang the Administrator ofKuaiji Commandery, where Wang Lang established a luxurious court, which recorded one of the earliest local histories of China. In 196,Sun Ce invaded Wang Lang's territory and forced him to surrender, but Wang Lang refused to serve him. Two years later Wang Lang was allowed to leave forCao Cao's court, where he would eventually rise to the position of Excellency under the rule ofCao Pi in 220. During his career he campaigned against the use of mutilation as a punishment and argued for the importance of education as a means to reduce the need for severe punishments. Wang Lang died in 228, leaving a collection of memorials and commentaries on the classics.^[129]

Xu Gong took overWu Commandery in 193. In 196 he was defeated bySun Ce and forced to take refuge withYan Baihu. In 200 Xu Gong allied himself toCao Cao but was defeated in battle and executed. His retainers ambushed Sun Ce and killed him later that year.^[130]

Xu Zhao was a leader in southernWu Commandery. He gave refuge to bothSheng Xian andYan Baihu as they were driven from their territory in the north. AlthoughCheng Pu advisedSun Ce to attack Xu Zhao, Sun Ce refused out of respect for his willingness to help others in need. Xu Zhao was later destroyed bySun Quan in 200.^[131]

Zhang Chao was the Administrator ofGuangling Commandery in 190. He joined the coalition in theCampaign against Dong Zhuo. In 194 Zhang Chao joined his brotherZhang Miao in alliance withLü Bu againstCao Cao inYan Province. They were defeated and Zhang Chao was besieged inYongqiu,Chenliu Commandery in 195. He killed himself and his family.^[132]

Zhang Jin was the Administrator ofZhangye Commandery. He joinedHuang Hua in opposingCao Cao in 220 but was killed bySu Ze.^[133]

Zhang Meng was the Administrator ofWuwei Commandery. In 206 Zhang Meng killed the InspectorHandan Shang and promised to pay retribution to anyone who attended to his corpse. An Assistant Officer loyal to Handan Shang carried out the mourning rites and went to Zhang Meng's residence to seek revenge for his superior. Recognizing his great sense of loyalty, Zhang Meng decided not to put him to death, and let Pang Yu leave forJiuquan Commandery. In 210 Zhang Meng was defeated byHan Sui.^[134]

Zhu Jun's father died when he was very young. His mother raised him working as a silk seller. After working as a clerk in his local county office, Zhu Jun joined the commandery staff, where he spent almost 20 years before becoming Registrar to the Administrator Yin Duan. In 173, Yin Duan was reported by provincial authorities for failing to defeat the rebel Xu Chang, but Zhu Jun intercepted the letter, resulting in a reduced sentence for Yin Duan. Zhu Jun went on to become a magistrate inDonghai Commandery before he was sent toJiaozhi in 181 as Inspector to deal with a rebellion by Liang Long. He raised 5,000 troops from his home inKuaiji Commandery and defeated the rebellion within a matter of weeks. Zhu Jun was recalled to the capital and promoted to Counsellor Remonstrant. In 184, Zhu Jun andHuangfu Song were sent to deal with theYellow Turban Rebellion in the south. They experienced some setbacks but managed to pacifyYingchuan,Runan, andChen commanderies by autumn. Zhu Jun then moved toNanyang Commandery and defeated the rebels there through deception. In 185, he was promoted again but left office when his mother died. He returned to the capital at some point and took up a number of posts.^[135]

WhenDong Zhuo seized power in 189, he wanted to make Zhu Jun his chief assistant, but Zhu Jun refused in protest of moving the capital toChang'an. Dong Zhuo left Zhu Jun in charge ofLuoyang after he headed west for Chang'an. Zhu Jun defected to the coalition forces and moved south in 191 toJing Province. In the following year, he was defeated by Dong Zhuo's commandersGuo Si andLi Jue. He returned to the imperial court after Dong Zhuo's assassination and served until 195 when he was taken captive by Guo Si, who had by then broken out in open conflict with Li Jue. Zhu Jun fell ill and died soon after. He was noted for being filial and generous to his peers.^[135]

Han Sui was born to an influential family inJincheng Commandery. His father held appointment at the capital and in 178, Han Sui followed in his father's footsteps by becoming a Reporting Officer atLuoyang. During his stay at the capital, he became friends withCao Cao, and was instrumental in urging General-in-ChiefHe Jin to eliminate the eunuchs. However He Jin was reluctant and after some time Han Sui returned to his homeland in the west, where he became Assistant Officer ofLiang Province.^[136]

In 184, Han Sui and his colleagueBian Zhang joinedBeigong Boyu in theLiang Province rebellion. Together they attackedChang'an in 185 and 188/189. After their first failure to take Chang'an, Han Sui killed Beigong Boyu and seized command himself withWang Guo as a figurehead. They failed to take Chang'an again in 189. Wang Guo was deposed and the rebel forces split up into three groups: Han Sui in Jincheng Commandery,Ma Teng inLongxi Commandery, and Song Jian on the upperYellow River. He initially supportedDong Zhuo and his successorLi Jue, but turned on them in 194 when he joined Ma Teng in attacking Chang'an. They were defeated atChangping Slope northwest of Chang'an and Han Sui was forced to withdraw toYoufufeng Commandery. Han Sui fell out with Ma Teng, possibly due to the machinations of Cao Cao's agentZhong Yao, and they began to skirmish with Ma Teng taking the heavier losses, causing him to joinCao Cao. In 210 Han Sui defeatedZhang Meng inWuwei Commandery. In 211 Cao Cao sent troops againstZhang Lu. Believing that this was a preliminary attack on themselves, Han Sui andMa Chao forged an alliance and confronted the enemy troops with initial success, driving them away. Later, Cao Cao personally led an army against the western alliance. When the three armies met atHuayin, Han Sui attempted to negotiate with Cao Cao and talked of the old days when they were friends at Luoyang, but Cao Cao's replies were mixed. The two sides agreed on a day to do battle. Han Sui and Ma Chao were defeated and forced to retreat. In 214Xiahou Yuan drove Han Sui fromHanyang Commandery. Han Sui's officerYan Xing rebelled against him and defected to Cao Cao. Han Sui died in 215 at the age of 70.^[137]

Ma Teng's family claimed descent from the famed generalMa Yuan, but his father was quite poor while his mother was ofQiang origin. Ma Teng grew to be quite tall at eight chi in height (185 cm). He made a living cutting firewood before joining the militia against theLiang Province rebellion.^[138]

Ma Teng rose to major under InspectorGeng Bi until Geng Bi was killed by mutineers in 187. Ma Teng then joined the mutineers, styling himself a general under the command ofWang Guo. After Wang Guo was defeated in 189, Ma Teng set himself up as an independent ruler inLongxi Commandery. WhenDong Zhuo retreated toChang'an, he persuaded Ma Teng andHan Sui to assist him against the other warlords. Ma Teng continued his allegiance to the Chang'an regime for a time even after Dong Zhuo's death and usurpation byLi Jue. In 194, he betrayed Li Jue and attacked Chang'an with the aid of Han Sui and supporters inLuoyang. Ma Teng and Han Sui were defeated atChangping Slope northwest of Chang'an and he retreated toLiang Province. Around 197 Ma Teng began to quarrel with Han Sui and their forces engaged in battle with Ma Teng losing the exchange. His sonMa Chao was wounded in battle byYan Xing while his wife and other sons were also lost, forcing him to retreat toYoufufeng Commandery. He threw in his lot withCao Cao in 202, sending Ma Chao to fightYuan Shao's officerGuo Yuan inHedong Commandery, and in 205 he himself campaigned againstSun Quan's officerZhang Cheng. In 208 Ma Teng was enfeoffed but kept hostage inYe while his son Ma Chao succeeded him in Liang Province. In 211 Ma Chao and Han Sui became hostile to Cao Cao. Ma Teng was killed the next year.^[138]

Ma Chao and Han Sui were defeated by Cao Cao atHuayin and retreated west. In 213 Ma Chao made an alliance with theQiang andDi people as well asZhang Lu. He then seizedHanyang Commandery. In the autumn an uprising byYang Fu andJiang Xu defeated Ma Chao and forced him to take refuge with Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu provided Ma Chao with troops to make an attempt to re-establish himself in Liang Province, but Ma Chao was defeated byXiahou Yuan. Realizing that Zhang Lu would not provide him with any more troops, Ma Chao joinedLiu Bei, who made him a general. Under Liu Bei, Ma Chao campaigned against Cao Cao inWudu Commandery in 217 but failed to make any headway. Ma Chao died in 222.^[139]

Song Jian led an uprising inLiang Province in 184. After 185 he returned to his home county ofFuhan and declared himself King of the Sources of the River Who Will Pacify Han. In the winter of 214Cao Cao's generalXiahou Yuan attacked Fuhan and killed Song Jian and his officers.^[140]

Congqian's name means "Follow Money". He was a bandit active inDonglai Commandery until put down byHe Kui andZhang Liao in 200.^[141]

Gan Ning was the leader of an influential vigilante bandit group inBa Commandery known for their expertise with bows and crossbows. Gan Ning treated local officials who aided him generously but plundered the territories of those who did not. Later he abandoned his life as ayouxia and studied philosophy.^[142]

WhenLiu Yan, the Governor ofYi Province, died in 194, his sonLiu Zhang refused to hand over the province to the court appointed Inspector, Hu Mao. Gan Ning aided Hu Mao in his conflict with Liu Zhang but they were defeated. Gan Ning fled with 800 followers toLiu Biao and thenHuang Zu, who treated him with disdain due to his past history as a bandit. At theBattle of Xiakou in 203, Huang Zu's fleet was defeated in an attack bySun Quan, and he himself was nearly captured until Gan Ning killed the enemy general,Ling Cao, with an arrow. Despite being saved by Gan Ning, Huang Zu continued to treat his savior coldly and refused to bestow upon him any rewards or promotions. He even tried to induce Gang Ning's men to abandon him.^[142]

In 207, Gan Ning was assigned to an eastern border post with the help of a sympathetic officer,Su Fei. From there he crossed over the border and defected to Sun Quan, where he found better terms of service. When Huang Zu was destroyed by Sun Quan in the following year, Gan Ning spoke in favor of Su Fei, saving his life. Gan Ning participated in several following campaigns, notably at theBattle of Yiling where he held offCao Ren's forces long enough for reinforcements to arrive despite being outnumbered five to one. In 215, he maintained the rearguard when Sun Quan was defeated at theBattle of Xiaoyao Ford, saving his lord's life. In 217, he took a small raiding party intoCao Cao's main camp at theBattle of Ruxu and decimated the enemy forces. Gan Ning died in 220.^[142]

Gong Du was a bandit inRunan Commandery. In 200, Gong Du allied withYuan Shao and with the assistance ofLiu Bei killedCao Cao's officer,Cai Yang. The next year Cao Cao retaliated, forcing Liu Bei to flee, and scattering Gong Du's followers.^[143]

Yan Baihu, or "White Tiger Yan", was a bandit leader of possiblyShanyue origins. WhenSun Ce came toWu Commandery in 195, Yan Baihu gave refuge to the displacedXu Gong and threatened the flank of Sun Ce's army. However Sun Ce paid him no attention and the two avoided any altercations. In 197,Cao Cao's agent Chen Yu provoked Yan into rebellion. Sun Ce sentLü Fan to drive out Chen Yu while he himself attacked Yan. The defeated Yan fled south to joinXu Zhao but died soon afterwards. Remnants of Yan's band joined Xu Gong in 200 to threaten Sun Ce's rear as he attackedHuang Zu in the west. Sun Ce decided to retreat and finish off the bandits once and for all, only to fall into an ambush and die at their hands.^[144]

Yang Feng was a leader of the Bobo bandit group inXihe Commandery. He joinedLi Jue but rebelled against him in 195. In 196 Yang Feng aidedEmperor Xian of Han in escaping the capital.Dong Zhao approached Yang Feng on behalf ofCao Cao and convinced him to let the emperor travel toXu city. Later Yang Feng tried to interfere in the move and was defeated by Cao Cao in battle, after which he fled toYuan Shu. In 197 Yang Feng rebelled against Yuan Shu in support ofLü Bu, however Lü Bu did not come to his aid and Yang Feng was forced to flee toLiu Bei. Liu Bei invited him to a banquet, at which he was bound and killed.^[145]

Zhang Yan, originally Chu Yan, was the leader of a bandit group in theTaihang Mountains in 184. At some point he joined another bandit, Oxhorn Zhang, but Zhang was fatally wounded in a raid and died soon afterwards. His last act was to transfer his men over to Chu Yan, who took the name of Zhang to honor his patron. Zhang Yan went on to create a bandit confederacy known as theBlack Mountain bandits that ravaged the neighboring commanderies ofChangshan,Zhao,Zhongshan,Shangdang, andHenei. In 190 Zhang Yan had a loose alliance withGongsun Zan againstYuan Shao. In 193 Yuan Shao attacked the Black Mountain bandits, forcing them off the southern hills and into the mountains. When Yuan Shao made his final attack on Gongsun Zan in 199, Zhang Yan tried to save him but failed. Zhang Yan surrendered toCao Cao when he took overJi Province in 205. He was made a general as well as a marquis.^[146]

A woman bandit active inDongping Commandery about 210. Apparently her appearance was foretold in a dream of Liu Zhen, one ofCao Cao's staff, where she was represented by a snake with four legs. She was defeated soon after. It is not clear in the text if she was a single person or two women named Zheng and Jiang.^[147]

Zu Lang was a local leader who defeatedSun Ce in a skirmish in 194 and then driven into the southern hills byWu Jing, Sun Ce's maternal uncle. He was eventually captured but Sun Ce showed him no ill will and recruited him into his staff.^[148]

Zhang Rao, Guan Hai, He Man, He Yi, Huang Shao, Liu Pi, Xu He, and Sima Ju were leaders of theYellow Turbans during the early 190s. They had substantial followings numbering in the tens of thousands.

In 192, Zhang Rao defeatedKong Rong's forces.^[149]

In 193, Guan Hai besieged Kong Rong but was defeated byLiu Bei.^[150]

In 196,Cao Cao took to the field against the other Yellow Turbans and defeated Huang Shao, after which He Man and He Yi surrendered.^[151]

In 200, Liu Pi supportedYuan Shao's invasion from the north by plundering the region around Cao Cao's headquarters atXu city. He was later joined byLiu Bei, whom Yuan Shao sent to assist him, but they were defeated byCao Ren. Liu Pi was killed.^[152]

In 206, Sima Ju and Xu He attacked a number of cities inQing Province.Cao Cao sentXiahou Yuan,Zang Ba, andLü Qian with a large force to deal with them. After several engagements and heavy casualties on both sides, the two Yellow Turban rebels were killed.^[153]

The Di (氐; not to be confused with theNorthern "Di" (狄)) were a farming people related to theQiang living in what is now easternGansu Province. Many of the Di tribes had become vassals to theHan dynasty since the 2nd century BC and maintained a relatively peaceful relationship for the most part. However, the Di began to frequently rebel during and after the fall of Han.

In the 210s, the Di tribes such as the ones led by Agui (阿貴) and Qianwan (千萬) allied themselves with the northwestern warlords,Ma Chao,Han Sui andZhang Lu. After they were defeated, many of the Di came under the control ofCao Cao. Their homeland soon became a frontier between theCao Wei andShu Han, and the Di tribes often vacillated their allegiance between the two sides. In 219, Cao Cao, looking to deter them from allying withLiu Bei, had 50,000 of the Di people relocated north to the commanderies along theWei River. During the northern expeditions ofZhuge Liang andJiang Wei, winning and maintaining the support of the Di tribes, along with the Qiang and other ethnic minorities in the region, became a strategic objective for both Wei and Shu Han. The Di also joined theXianbei,Tufa Shujineng when herebelled against theWestern Jin dynasty between 270 and 280.

The Di went on to form three of the laterSixteen Kingdoms:Cheng-Han (304–347),Former Qin (351–394) andLater Liang (386–403).^[154]

TheKorean kingdom ofGoguryeo was invaded byGongsun Kang in 204, resulting in theDaifang Commandery. In 208, Kang sent aid to Balgi in support of his claim to the Goguryeo throne. According to the 12th century chronicleSamguk Sagi, the invasion was defeated by Gyesu, younger brother ofSansang of Goguryeo. However this is not reported in the Chinese records, which state that the invasion was a success and Balgi was settled in conquered territory. K.H.J. Gardiner says that this is because theSamguk Sagi sought to reverse the reality of defeat in a number of instances and questioned both the existence of Gyesu and his victory.^[84] Gongsun Kang took some territory and Goguryeo was forced to move its capital further east.^[155] Goguryeo re-established in its former territory and established dominance over the tribes at the mouth of theYalu River sometime before 233. In 238, Goguryeo allied withCao Wei to overthrow the Liaodong regime. Goguryeo raided theXuantu Commandery in 242. In retaliation, Cao Weiinvaded Goguryeo from 244 to 245. The Wei generalGuanqiu Jian sacked the Goguryeo capital ofHwando, sent its king fleeing, and broke the tributary relationships between Goguryeo and the other tribes of Korea that formed much of Goguryeo's economy. Although the king evaded capture and eventually settled in a new capital, Goguryeo was reduced to such insignificance that for half a century there was no mention of the state in Chinese historical texts.^[156][157]

Goguryeo lies a thousand li to the east of Liaodong, being contiguous with Joseon and Yemaek on the south, with Okjeo on the east, and with Buyeo on the north. They make their capital below Hwando. With a territory perhaps two thousand li on a side, their households number three myriads. They have many mountains and deep valleys and have no plains or marshes. Accommodating themselves to mountain and valley, the people make do with them for their dwellings and food. With their steep-banked rivers, they lack good fields; and though they plow and till energetically, their efforts are not enough to fill their bellies; their custom is to be sparing of food. They like to build palaces... By temperament the people are violent and take delight in brigandage... As an old saying of the Dongyi would have it, they are a separate branch of the Buyeo. And indeed there is much about their language and other things they share with the Buyeo, but in temperament and clothing there are differences.

Their people delight in singing and dancing. In villages throughout the state, men and women gather in groups at nightfall for communal singing and games. They have no great storehouses, each family keeping its own small store... They rejoice in cleanliness, and they are good at brewing alcohol. When they kneel in obeisance, they extend one leg; in this they differ from the Buyeo. In moving about on foot they all run... In their public gatherings they all wear colorfully brocaded clothing and adorn themselves with gold and silver.^[158]

TheCham are anAustronesian ethnic group that live in modern-dayVietnam andCambodia. Under theHan dynasty, the Cham lived inJiao Province, particularly inXianglin, the southernmost district ofRinan Commandery. In either 137 or 192 AD, the son of a Cham official,Khu Liên, killed the local Chinese administrator in Xianglin and declared himself the King ofLâm Ấp, known as Linyi (林邑) in Chinese.^[103]

With the fall of Han, the Lâm Ấp then came into contact with theEastern Wu dynasty. Though initially paying tribute to Wu, they soon adopted an aggressive stance against their new northern neighbour. In 248, Lâm Ấp seized the Lurong County (盧容縣; around present-dayHuế,North Central Coast,Vietnam) in Rinan after a great battle. Due to the ensuing rebellions inJiuzhen andJiaozhi commanderies involvingLady Triệu, the Wu was unable to retaliate.^[159] During the late Wu period, the Lâm Ấp king,Phạm Hùng, allied with theKingdom of Funan and launched incessant attacks on Jiao province. These attacks ended by 284, as they attempted to establish ties withWestern Jin dynasty.^[160]

TheLushuihu, literally meaning "Black River Barbarians", was an ethnic group that resided around the area of modern-dayGansu. Their exact origin is still debated by scholars today; it is proposed that "Lushuihu" was a generic term forhu tribes that lived in northwestern China, but there are also theories suggesting that they were descendants of theLesser Yuezhi that intermingled with the Qiang people, or that they were a branch of theXiongnu. In 222, their leaders, Zhiyuanduo (治元多) and Yijiianjiqie (伊健妓妾) rebelled in theHexi Corridor but was swiftly defeated byCao Wei forces. The Lushuihu later founded one of theSixteen Kingdoms,Northern Liang (397–439).^[161]

The Banshun, also known as theBandun Man, which literally means "board shield barbarians", were a native people ofBa Commandery,Yi Province, who often served as elite troops in the Han army against other peoples such as theQiang and the natives ofWuling Commandery. They rebelled in 179 due to unrest caused by theYellow Turban Rebellion, but when amnesty was issued byCao Qian in 182, the rebellion was ended.^[162] There was another brief uprising in 188 but it amounted to nothing.^[163] Related to the Banshun were the neighboring Zong people, who became interested in the mysticism of theCelestial MasterZhang Lu and moved north to the border of his territory. WhenCao Cao attacked Zhang Lu in the summer of 215, he fled toDuhu of the Cong and Fuhu of the Banshun for refuge. However Duhu and Fuhu surrendered to Cao Cao in the autumn and received appointment, with Zhang Lu following in the winter. In 219Liu Bei's officerHuang Quan attacked them and drove several non-Chinese groups north into Cao Cao's territory.^[164] In the north, the Zong people mingled with the localDi people and became known as theBa-Di, which later found one of the Sixteen Kingdoms,Cheng-Han (304–347)^[165]

Gaoding was a powerful chieftain inYuexi Commandery. In 218 he led an attack onJianwei Commandery but was repelled by the AdministratorLi Yan. He caused trouble again in 223 and was killed inZhuge Liang's Southern Campaign two years later.^[166]

Meng Huo was a local leader of theNanman mentioned inAnnotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms byPei Songzhi. In 225, Meng Huo rebelled withYong Kai. He was captured byZhuge Liang seven times before he surrendered. Meng Huo's role was greatly expanded upon inRomance of the Three Kingdoms, in which he is portrayed as the king of the Nanman and husband toLady Zhurong, a descendant of the God of Fire. In theRomance, Meng Huo was described riding a red horse, wearing a golden inlaid headdress, a belt with a clasp in the image of a lion's face, boots with pointed toes that were green, and a pair of swords chased with pine amber at his waist. Later he rode into battle on a red ox, wearing rhinoceros armour while wielding shield and sword. He enlisted the aid of his fellow kings Wutugu, who commanded an army of 30,000 invincible rattan armour troops, and Mulu, who rode a white elephant and deployed wild beasts in battle. Although his allies were defeated by Zhuge Liang's anachronistic gunpowder weapons and killed, Meng Huo was repeatedly captured and released until he surrendered and became a local administrator.^[167]

Yong Kai was a powerful chieftain inYizhou Commandery. In 215, Yong Kai killed the AdministratorZheng Ang and defected toSun Quan. Sun Quan named Yong Kai Administrator ofYongchang Commandery but actually distrusted him and ordered his officers to keep him out of that territory. In 223, Yong Kai captured the AdministratorZhang Yi and sent him to Sun Quan. In 225, Yong Kai was killed by another chieftain,Gao Ding.^[168]

TheQiang referred to groups of western pastoral nomads that lived in areas of present-dayGansu andQinghai. Since theWestern Han dynasty, the Qiang had been migrating in large groups into theGuanzhong region to practice agriculture. They had a troubled relationship with the Han; though they were occasionally allowed to resettle, they also suffered oppression at the hands of the local Chinese administrators, leading to rebellions that drained the Han military and economy. In 156 AD, the general,Duan Jiong led an extermination campaign against the Qiang, massacring a great number of their people.^[169]

Despite this setback, the Qiang were nonetheless the main instigator of theLiang Province rebellion in 184, signalling the downfall of the Han dynasty. Unlike their previous rebellions, they allied themselves with the Chinese warlords in the northwest such asMa Teng andHan Sui. Ma Teng himself was a half-Qiang through his mother, and he and his family had been living among the Qiang tribes. As the rebellion progressed, the Qiang seemed to have quietly withdrew from the conflict, allowing the local Han rebels to take the reins. In 211, the Qiang aided Ma Teng's son,Ma Chao in his war against Cao Cao, but were eventually brought under the latter's control after he conquered the region.^[169]

With northwestern China as a target of expansion for the Shu Han, one of the main objectives during the northern expeditions ofZhuge Liang andJiang Wei was to win over the Qiang tribes living in Cao Wei territory. Jiang Wei's earlier expeditions saw Qiang chieftains like Ehe (餓何) and Shaoge (燒戈) rebelling in support of Shu Han, but they were all suppressed by Wei forces led byGuo Huai. The Qiang also fought as soldiers for both Cao Wei and Shu Han. After the fall of Shu Han, many of them later joined theXianbei chieftain,Tufa Shujineng in his rebellion against theWestern Jin dynasty from 270 to 280.^[170][171]

The Qiang continued to form a significant portion of the population in the northwest after the Three Kingdoms. During theSixteen Kingdoms period, the Qiang founded theLater Qin dynasty (384–417).

TheShanyue "Mountain Yue" were a group ofAustro-Asiatic people related to theVietnamese who lived in the mountain regions of modernJiangsu,Zhejiang,Anhui,Jiangxi andFujian. In 203, they rebelled againstSun Quan's rule and were defeated by the generalsLü Fan,Cheng Pu, andTaishi Ci. In 217, Sun Quan appointed Lu Xun supreme commander of an army to suppress martial activities by the Shanyue in Guiji (modernShaoxing). Captured Shanyue tribesmen were recruited into the army. In 234,Zhuge Ke was made governor ofDanyang. Under his governorship, the region was cleansed of the Shanyue through systematic destruction of their settlements. Captured tribesmen were used as front line fodder in the army. The remaining population was resettled in lowlands and many became tenant farmers for Chinese landowners.^[172]

During the early phase of the Three Kingdoms era, there was an unrest across the Jiaozhi circuit (modern-dayGuangdong,Guangxi and northern Vietnam) led by theWuhu chiefLiang Long and his rebellion attracted the Lac Viet and all other ethnic groups in Southern Han China, but was suppressed in 184.^[173] After a century and a half of close imperial supervision and repression, Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen enjoyed a period of autonomy from 187 to 226. In 177Shi Xie became the prefect of Jiaozhi (Jiaozhou (modernVietnam andGuangzhou)), is primarily remembered today inVietnam asSĩ Nhiếp, the father of education and a great patron ofBuddhism. He relocated Jiaozhi's capital back toLuy Lâu, the river market townZhao Tuo had founded in 179 BC, which soon became celebrated for its trading prosperity. Shi Xie stayed out of the northern wars for the most part and later willingly submitted toEastern Wu. According to Stephen O'Harrow, Shi Xie was essentially "the first Vietnamese."^[101][102]Buddhism became the predominant religion the Lac people.^[174] During Shi Xie's reign, the Lac people's customs had been slightly altered and sinicized by Xie.^[175]

The south's trade and treasure attracted imperial power. After Shi Xie's death in 226, the Wu court atNanjing reasserted direct Chinese control over Jiaozhi. An army of three thousand set out fromNanhai Commandery and sailed up the Red River. The Wu general summoned Xie's son, Shi Hui, with his five brothers and sons, and beheaded them all.^[176] Having conquered Jiaozhi, Wu forces also stormed Jiuzhen, killing or capturing ten thousand people, along with surviving members of Shi Xie's family In 231, the Wu court had to send another general to Jiuzhen to “exterminate and pacify the barbarousYuè” there.^[176] In 248, the people ofJiaozhi andJiuzhen commanderies rebelled. A Lạc Việt woman namedLady Triệu in Jiuzhen led a rebellion, followed by a hundred Lac chieftains led fifty thousand families in her revolt.^[177] Eastern Wu sentLu Yin to deal with the rebels. He defeated her and put her to death.^[178][179]

In 263,Viet "barbarians" people in Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen under Lã Hưng once againrevolted against the Eastern Wu. The rebels handed the region over toCao Wei (succeeded by theJin dynasty in 266), which had recently conqueredShu Han. Wei sent former Shu officials and generals to govern the region, and in 268, they held off a large Wu counteroffensive.^[178] In 269, Wu launched another counteroffensive and eventually retook Jiaozhi's ports and main towns by 271.^[178]

TheWuhuan, a people similar to theXianbei, were a loose confederation of nomads that had been subservient to larger and stronger neighboring powers for most of their existence. In 168 the Wuhuan established some degree of independence under their own leaders. The largest of these groups were led byNanlou in Shanggu,Qiuliju in Liaoxi,Supuyan in the Dependent State of Liaodong, andWuyan in Youbeiping.^[180] In 187 Qiuliju joined the rebellion of Zhang Chun. Following the defeat of Zhang Chun in 188, Qiuliju attackedGongsun Zan but was defeated. In 190 he surrendered toLiu Yu and died in 193.^[181] Qiuliju's sonLouban was too young to succeed him so his cousinTadun became acting guardian.^[182] In 195 Tadun, Nanlou and Supuyan supportedYuan Shao against Gongsun Zan.^[183][184] In 207, Tadun was defeated byCao Cao at theBattle of White Wolf Mountain and died in battle. After their defeat many of the Wuhuan surrendered to Cao Cao and served as part of Cao Cao's cavalry forces.^[184][183] Louban and Supuyan fled toGongsun Kang, who killed them.^[182]

Cao Cao divided the Wuhuan into three groups situated inDai Commandery. The chieftains Nengchendi and Pufulu continued to cause trouble until 218 whenCao Zhang destroyed the last remnants of their power for good.^[185] The Wuhuan gradually lost their cultural identity as they assimilated with theHan Chinese,Xianbei and other surrounding ethnic groups. Nonetheless, they continued to appear in history up to the end of the 4th century, albeit their name had become a term for generic or miscellaneoushu (雜胡;zahu) tribes with Donghu backgrounds.^[186]

The Wuqi "Five Gorges" barbarians were amountain people who lived inWuling Commandery. In 221,Liu Bei bribed their leaderShamoke into supporting his war againstSun Quan, however the invasion failed and Shamoke was killed in a counterattack byLu Xun the following year.^[187]

TheXianbei killed the NorthernXiongnu chanyuYouliu in 87 and rose to power in the wake of theNorthern Chanyu's defeat by the Han at theBattle of the Altai Mountains in 89. By 156, the Xianbei were unified under a chieftain,Tanshihuai. Their loose confederacy lacked the organization of the Xiongnu but was highly aggressive until Tanshihuai's death in 181.^[188] Tanshihuai's son Helian lacked his father's abilities and was killed in a raid on Beidi near the end ofEmperor Ling of Han's reign.^[189] Helian's brother Kuitou succeeded him, but when Helian's son Qianman came of age, he challenged his uncle to succession, destroying the last vestiges of unity among the Xianbei. By 190, the Xianbei had split into various groups, notably with Kuitou ruling inInner Mongolia,Kebineng (軻比能) in northernShanxi, and Suli (素利) and Mijia (彌加) in northernLiaodong.

In 205, Kuitou was succeeded by his brothers,Budugen andFuluohan. Following Cao Cao's victory over theWuhuan at theBattle of White Wolf Mountain in 207, Budugen, Fuluohan and many other Xianbei chieftains paid tribute to him. In 218, Fuluohan met with the Wuhuan chieftain Nengchendi (能臣氐) to form an alliance, but Nengchendi double crossed him and called in Kebineng, who killed Fuluohan.^[190] Budugen went to the court ofCao Wei in 224 to ask for assistance against Kebineng, but he eventually betrayed them and allied with Kebineng in 233. Kebineng killed Budugen soon afterwards.^[191]

Kebineng was from a minor Xianbei tribe. He rose to power west ofDai Commandery by taking in a number of Chinese refugees, who helped him drill his soldiers and make weapons. After the defeat of the Wuhuan in 207, he also sent tribute to Cao Cao, and even provided assistance against the rebel Tian Yin. In 218 he allied himself to the Wuhuan rebel Nengchendi but they were heavily defeated and forced back across the frontier byCao Zhang. In 220 he acknowledgedCao Pi as emperor of Cao Wei. Eventually he turned on the Wei for frustrating his advances on another Xianbei chieftain, Suli. Kebineng conducted raids on Wei before he was killed in 235, after which his confederacy disintegrated.^[192]

The decline of the Wuhuan encouraged the Xianbei tribes to move inwards and fill in the power vacuum, with some even becoming vassals to the Wei and Jin courts. In 258, theTuoba tribe settled in the abandoned city ofShengle, north ofShanxi.^[193] To the east of them, theYuwen tribe settled between theLuan River andLiucheng, while theMurong tribe were allowed to move deeper intoLiaodong after they assistedSima Yi in hiscampaign againstGongsun Yuan in 238. Unlike the Xianbei of the steppe, theDuan was founded within the Chinese border by a Xianbei ex-slave of theWuhuan, and rose to prominence inLiaoxi.

Other Xianbei tribes opted to migrate westward and settled around theHexi Corridor. An offshoot of the Murong tribe moved into northernQinghai and mixed with the native Qiang people, becoming known as theTuyuhun, while theQifu tribe settled around theYellow River in theLongxi basin.^[194] A branch of the Tuoba, theTufa tribe roamed the Hexi Corridor, and in 270, their chieftain,Tufa Shujineng, led arebellion against theJin dynasty with the Xianbei,Qiang, and other tribal peoples living in northwestern China. The rebels killed a handful of the generals sent to defeat them, and in 279, they were even able to captureLiang province. That year, Jin sent the general,Ma Long and finally quelled the rebellion in 280.^[171]

The Xianbei that migrated into China during this period went on to play an important role in Chinese history. They founded five of the short livedSixteen Kingdoms:Former Yan (337–370),Later Yan (384–409),Western Qin (385–431),Southern Liang (397–414), andSouthern Yan (398–410). They also established theNorthern Wei (386–535), and the subsequentNorthern Dynasties were all either founded by the Xianbei or heavily influenced by them.^[195]

By the time of the Three Kingdoms period theXiongnu had already ceased to be a major power. Due to infighting, the Xiongnu empire was divided into north and south in the 1st century; the northern branch, known as the Northern Xiongnu, had their last stand as a steppe empire in 89 whenDou Xian led an army of 45,000 and decisively defeated them at theBattle of the Altai Mountains. The southern branch, known as the Southern Xiongnu, continued to exist as a Han puppet state inBing Province, where they served as auxiliaries to defend the frontiers. The Xiongnu Empire of the steppe was replaced by a loose confederation of disorganizedXianbei tribes, who were nonetheless highly aggressive and proved problematic to their southern neighbors.^[196]

In 188, just as the situation in Luoyang was about to boil over, the Southern Xiongnu were also experiencing their own power struggle. The chanyuQiangqu had been sending his tribesmen to aid the Han against theYellow Turbans and Zhang Chun, and many among the Southern Xiongnu were alarmed by how frequent they were being mobilized. At the same time, a branch of the Xiongnu known as theXiuchuge people had rebelled against the Han in theHetao region, invadingXihe Commandery and killing the Inspector of Bing. Thus, Southern Xiongnu rebels, led by the Xiluo clan of the Right Division, allied with the Xiuchuge and killed Qiangqu. When the Han court appointed his sonYufuluo to succeed him, the rebels refused to acknowledge his rule by expelling him and installing amarquis of the Xubu clan.^[197]

Yufuluo fled to the Han court but found no support after the death ofEmperor Ling of Han in 189. When Yufuluo returned to Bing, he was denied entry by the rebels, so he acted as a wandering mercenary aroundHedong Commandery, east of theFen River while still claiming the title of chanyu.^[198] After he died in 195, his brother,Huchuquan succeeded him. Around this time, their uncle,Qubei notably provided military support forEmperor Xian of Han in his escape fromChang'an toLuoyang, and later escorted him toCao Cao atXuchang in 196. Huchuquan came to serve underYuan Shang in 202 and was defeated by Cao Cao's officerZhong Yao, after which he surrendered.^[199]

Meanwhile, when the marquis of Xubu died in 189, his followers decided to retire the chanyu position and installed an elderly king as the nominal head of state.^[200] Among the rebel faction, the Xiuchuge, also known as the Chuge, were particular active in the conflict during the fall of Han. They became allies with theHeishan bandits of theTaihang Mountains before eventually retreating west as Cao Cao andYuan Shao established their power in the north. The Xiuchuge were finally defeated at Gaoping County (高平縣; present-dayGuyuan,Ningxia) by Cao Cao's general,Xiahou Yuan, in 214.^[201]

In 216, Cao Cao detained Huchuquan atYe as an honoured prisoner. A number of commanderies in Bing province such asShuofang andYunzhong had to be abolished due to their remoteness and the hostile local tribes. Instead, Cao Cao had the last vestiges of the Southern Xiongnu rearranged into the Five Divisions and resettled them aroundTaiyuan Commandery, where they were supervised by Qubei. The nominal title of chanyu remained with Huchuquan until his death, after which no new chanyu was proclaimed. Under Qubei, the Five Divisions clashed with the migratingTuoba-Xianbei to the north of them. After his death, his sons were initially not allowed to inherit his position.^[202]

During theJiaping era (249–254), the Commander of the Left Division,Liu Bao unified the Five Divisions and was building up his military force. The Wei general,Deng Ai brought the matter to the court, who gradually redivided Liu Bao's forces into five and had him send his son,Liu Yuan, as a hostage inLuoyang. Qubei's son,Liu Meng was also given an honorary title among the Five Divisions and was stationed atYanmen Pass. However, in 271, Liu Meng rebelled and left theGreat Wall. He later returned to invade Bing, but was swiftly defeated and killed in early 272.^[202]

During theSixteen Kingdoms period,Liu Yuan founded theHan-Zhao dynasty (304–329), while a line of Qubei's descendants, theTiefu clan, founded theHelian Xia dynasty (407–431).Shi Le, the founder of theJie-ledLater Zhao dynasty (319–351), descended from one of the Southern Xiongnu tribes, the Qiangqu (羌渠). TheNorthern Liang dynasty (397–439), whose ruling family wereLushuihu, is sometimes classed in historiography as a Xiongnu state.^[203]

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• Sanguozhi
• Zizhi Tongjian
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