Mildred Harnack | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Born | Mildred Elizabeth Fish (1902-09-16)September 16, 1902 |
| Died | February 16, 1943(1943-02-16) (aged 40) |
| Cause of death | Execution by guillotine |
| Resting place | FriedhofZehlendorf in Berlin |
| Alma mater | University of Wisconsin University of Jena University of Giessen |
| Occupation(s) | Author, literary critic, resistance fighter |
| Known for | Member of theRed Orchestra ("Rote Kapelle") |
Mildred Elizabeth Harnack (née Fish; September 16, 1902 – February 16, 1943) was an American communist,literary historian,translator, and member of theGerman resistance against the Nazi regime. After marryingArvid Harnack, she moved to Germany in 1929, where she began her career as an academic. Mildred Harnack spent a year at theUniversity of Jena and theUniversity of Giessen working on her doctoral thesis. At Giessen, she witnessed the beginnings ofNazism. Mildred Harnack became an assistant lecturer in English and American literature at theUniversity of Berlin in 1931.
In 1932, Mildred and her husband Arvid began to resist Nazism. Mildred nicknamed the underground resistance group they established "the Circle." Mildred and Arvid became friends with Louise andDonald Heath, who was First Secretary at the U.S. Embassy in Berlin, and to whom Mildred and Arvid passed intelligence from Arvid's position at the Reich Economics Ministry. Between 1935 and 1940, the couple's group intersected with three other anti-fascist resistance groups. The most important of these was run byLuftwaffe lieutenantHarro Schulze-Boysen. Like numerous groups in other parts of the world, the undercover political factions led by Harnack and Schulze-Boysen later developed into an espionage network that collaborated with Soviet intelligence to defeat Hitler. This Berlin anti-fascist espionage group "the Circle" was later named theRed Orchestra (Rote Kapelle) by theAbwehr. The couple were arrested in September 1942 and executed shortly after.
Mildred Elizabeth Fish was born and raised on the west side ofMilwaukee, Wisconsin. Her parents were William Cook Fish, who was frequently unemployed between gigs as an insurance salesman, butcher, and horse trader,[1] and Georgina Fish (née Hesketh), a self-taught stenographer and typist. Mildred had three siblings, Harriette (the eldest), and twins Marbeau (aka "Bob") and Marion.[2] She attendedWest Division High School (nowMilwaukee High School of the Arts). After the death of her father, Mildred and her mother moved toChevy Chase, Maryland where Mildred's eldest sister lived. There she attended Western High School her senior year. She played on the basketball and baseball teams, served as editor forThe Trailblazer, and played the role of Princess Angelica inWilliam Makepeace Thackeray'sThe Rose and the Ring, the senior class play.[3] She finished her last year atWestern High School.[4] In 1919, she began studying atGeorge Washington University,[2] then enrolled in 1921 at theUniversity of Wisconsin. During her first year, she worked for theWisconsin State Journal as a film and drama critic to support herself. She stayed at a rooming house popular with journalists and writers, but left after facing some mild prejudice, which caused her to change her major from journalism to humanities, then later to English literature. In 1922, she became a staff writer for theWisconsin Literary Magazine.[5]
On June 22, 1925, she was awarded aBachelor of Arts in Humanities.[6] Her senior thesis was "A Comparison of Chapman's and Pope's Translations of theIliad with the Original".[7] She stayed for further study and was awarded aMaster of Arts degree in English on August 6, 1925.[6]
While Mildred was a graduate student at the University of Wisconsin, she metArvid Harnack, a graduate student from Germany who was studying under aRockefeller Fellowship.[8] After a brief love affair, they were engaged on June 6, 1926, and wed on August 7, 1926[9] in a ceremony at her brother's farm near the village ofBrooklyn, Wisconsin.[4] On September 28, 1928, Arvid Harnack returned to Germany. Between 1928 and 1929, Mildred Fish-Harnack taught English and American literature atGoucher College inBaltimore, Maryland.[10]
A fellow student of Mildred Harnack's at the University of Wisconsin wasClara Leiser.[11] A professor who exerted an influence over her wasWilliam Ellery Leonard,[12] who advised her when she was writing her senior thesis.[1] Leonard was a non-conformist who believed in the Emersonian principle that "nothing at last is sacred but the integrity of [one's] own mind". He subjected Fish-Harnack to a grueling scrutiny that shaped her intellectual outlook.[13] For Fish-Harnack,Ralph Waldo Emerson andWalt Whitman were the two greatest advocates ofAmerican literature.[14] While at Madison, the couple metMargaretha "Greta" Lorke, a German student ofsociology[15] who had been invited to study in the U.S. A lifelong friendship developed between Mildred and Greta.[16] Lorke later marriedAdam Kuckhoff.[15]
On June 2, 1929, Mildred moved toJena in Germany, where she spent her first year[17] living with the Harnack family.[18] In the same year, she received a grant from theGerman Academic Exchange Service[19] that enabled her to start working on her doctorate inAmerican literature at theUniversity of Jena,[17] but she found theUniversity of Giessen to be most welcome.[17] Fish-Harnack's doctoral supervisor wasWalther Fischer, who judged her to be an excellent lecturer and described her in a 1936 recommendation as showing great "tact",[20] by which he meant Fish-Harnack's tactful approach to the Nazis' increasing incursion into the university in 1931 and 1932.[20] By the time Fish-Harnack arrived in Giessen, more than half the student population were vocal in their support of the Nazis[21] and therefore opponents of several faculty members. Amongst those under suspicion were philosophy professorErnst von Aster—aMarxist—and economistFriedrich Lenz.[21] Aster's wife, Swedish novelistHildur Dixelius, became a good friend and eventually became a house guest at Fish-Harnack's Berlin house.[21]
On February 1, 1931, Mildred Harnack began studying at theUniversity of Berlin on a fellowship from theAlexander von Humboldt Foundation.[19] Harnack was invited to hold a public lecture called "Romantic and Marital Love in the Work ofNathaniel Hawthorne" at theFriedrich-Wilhelm University,[22] which allowed her to work as an assistant lecturer andlector onEnglish andAmerican literature.[23] She taught courses on Emerson, Whitman,Theodore Dreiser,Sinclair Lewis,Thomas Hardy, andGeorge Bernard Shaw.[24] Mildred Harnack was popular with her students and over three semesters enrollment in the course tripled.[24]
Harnack was an active member of the American expatriate community in Berlin.[25] She went to dances at the American Student Association[25] and was a member of the American Women's Club in Bellevuestraße,[26] later serving as its president.[27] The Harnacks socialized with American journalists and diplomats at theAmerican Church inNollendorfplatz, a popular meeting place for American ex-pats.[28]
During their time in Berlin, the Harnacks witnessed theWeimardämmerung, the unraveling of theGerman republic.[29] They became interested in theSoviet Union andcommunism, seeing them as a solution to the rampantpoverty and unemployment that Germany suffered during theGreat Depression. They were of particular interest for Harnack, whose mother had struggled during thehyperinflation of the 1920s after the loss of her husband when he was a teenager.[30] Their interest in capitalism waned, and they both believed that the economic system was ideologically bankrupt; they looked to the Soviet Union's new experimentalfive-year plans, believing the system could provide work for the masses.[29] In 1931, Arvid established theWissenschaftliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft zum Studium der sowjetischen Planwirtschaft (ARPLAN, "Scientific Working Community for the Study of the Soviet Planned Economy"),[31] a group of writers and academics that met once a month to discuss the Soviet planned economy.[32]
In 1932, Fish-Harnack lost her position as a lecturer in American literature at the University of Berlin.[33] At the time, the German Americanist and ardent NaziFriedrich Schönemann[34] had returned from leave in America to work in the English department.[33] Fish-Harnack never hid her leftist political views during lectures. In May 1932, the funding that enabled Mildred to teach atFriedrich-Wilhelm University was canceled.[19] The couple was forced to move to 61 Hasenheide inNeukölln due to the Nazis' presence.[35] The couple had leased the apartment from a relative of the writerStefan Heym; in his postwar novelNachruf, Heym stated he found the Harnacks to be a genial academic couple with a determined outlook on the Nazis.[36]
In the same year, Soviet economist and diplomatSergei Bessonov, with the help of the Soviet embassy, organized a three-week study trip (from August 20 to September 12, 1932) to theSoviet Union for 23 members of ARPLAN including Arvid.[37] Mildred hoped to go, but due to a scheduling conflict decided to make her own way there by booking the trip usingIntourist and flying back early.[37] Fish-Harnack's career as a scholar was saved when a family friend who was also president ofAmerican Student Union, Warren Tomlinson, suggested she take over his position as lecturer at the Berlin municipal evening high school.[22] On September 1, 1932,[38] Fish-Harnack began lecturing at theHeil'schen AbendschuleAbendgymnasium ("Berliner Städtische Abendgymnasium für Erwachsene" or BAG) at Berlin W 50, Augsburger Straße 60 inSchöneberg,[39] an evening high school for adults to prepare for theAbitur.[39] Fish-Harnack was popular with her students, for many of whom her courses were their first introduction to American Literature. She socialised with her students and discussed economic and political ideas from the United States and the Soviet Union in an open and frank manner.[40] One of her students,Karl Behrens,[41] became friends with the Harnacks and eventually one of their most ardent recruits.[42]
During the 1930s, the Harnacks kept in close contact with theBonhoeffer family.[43] Fish-Harnack, seeking additional income, launched a lecture series that was held inKlaus andEmmi Bonhoeffer's home.[43]
On June 13, 1933, Fish-Harnack metMartha Dodd when she and other members of the American Women's Club met at theLehrter train station to welcome Dodd's father and American ambassador,William.[44] Dodd became Fish-Harnack's friend in Berlin,[45][46] and her manuscript,In Memory, found in her Prague apartment attic in 1957, stated:
The years of our acquaintance were the most significant of my life. Our work, our experiences, in these courageous tragic years of fulfillment and disappointment are closely interwoven. Everything we thought about. What we loved. Hated. What we fought for. We shared with each other. We, all of us, my husband were in the German underground from 1933 to 1943. I'm the only one left.[45]
In a letter Fish-Harnack wrote to her mother in October 1935, she described Dodd as a talented writer of literary criticism and short stories with "a real desire to understand the wider world... Therefore, our interests combine and we will try to work something out together."[45] Fish-Harnack and Dodd edited a book column together in the English-language newspaperBerlin Topics.[47] The Harnacks began to host a Saturday literarysalon on Hasenheide where political views among editors, publishers, and authors were freely expressed;[36] the attendees included publishersSamuel Fischer,Ernst Rowohlt, and Rowohlt's sonHeinrich Marie Ledig-Rowohlt; translatorFranz Frein; physician and writerMax Mohr; authors and playwrights Adam Kuckhoff,Max Tau,Otto Zoff, andErnst von Salomon; journalistMargret Boveri; criticErich Franzen; and Mildred's students, such as writerFriedrich Schlösinger.[36] In Dodd's bookThrough Embassy Eyes, she mentioned a report by an American publisher who had visited the Fish-Harnacks in 1934, who stated:
He was expecting a lively exchange of views and engaging conversations that evening—definitely more appealing than that to which we were used in diplomatic circles. Instead, I only saw suffering and need. People whose spirit was broken. I saw pathetic cowardice. A lying in wait and tension, which was triggered by the visits by the secret police. The last of the meager remnants of free thought.[47]
In 1934, the couple moved[48] to the third floor apartment at 16 Schöneberger Woyrschstraße, close to theTiergarten.[49] The house was destroyed in the war and is now known as 14 Genthiner Straße.[50]
An important writer in Fish-Harnack's life wasThomas Wolfe. She found that his ability to shape memories from his early life to produce an autobiographical novel was reflected in her own desires for her own novel.[51] She had read Wolfe's first book,Look Homeward, Angel, in 1933, lectured on the writer at the American Women's Club in 1933, and produced a further lecture in 1934 that was presented at the Bonhoeffers'.[52] On August 5, 1934, Fish-Harnack published the essay "Drei junge Dichter aus USA. Thornton Wilder, Thomas Wolfe, William Faulkner" in theBerliner Tageblatt.[52] On May 8, 1935, the Harnacks attended theAmerican embassy in Berlin for tea, along with the Kuckhoffs. Fish-Harnack had a rare chance to meet Wolfe, who came to Germany to promote his book with his publisher, Ledig-Rowohlt.[53] The tea party was also attended byJohn Sieg.[54] Tau, a Jewish German-Norwegian writer and close friend of the Harnacks who attended the tea party, had to leave Germany afterKristallnacht;[55] it is unclear which of the Harnacks organised his escape.[55][56]
In the mid-1930s, Fish-Harnack's work began to be noticed and she became a published writer.[51] In 1934, Fish-Harnack wrote an essay, "The Epic of the South", which was published inBerliner Tageblatt.[51] In 1935, she wrote an essay, "Ein amerikanischer Dichter aus großer Tradition" (transl. "An American poet of a greater Tradition"), onWilliam Faulkner for the magazineDie Literatur.[57][51] This type of critical analysis was no longer tolerated and could have ended her teaching career.[51] On May 27, 1934, Fish-Harnack accepted an invitation from Ledig-Rowohlt, Dodd, and Dodd's boyfriendBoris Vinogradov to visit the German writerHans Fallada in Carwitz, whose bookLittle Man, What Now? was published the previous year in the USA[58] and had been a bestseller.[59] Fallada was one of the few German writers who failed to obey the Nazi state.[60] After 1935, Fish-Harnack did not publish any literary criticisms, essays, or newspaper articles, as the increasing presence of the Nazi regime made any writings a "rubber stamp for official views".[61]
In 1936, her German translation ofIrving Stone's biography ofVincent van Gogh,Lust for Life, was published.[62] She continued to work as a translator for publishing houses. In January 1937, Fish-Harnack visited the United States, and stayed with Leiser in New York for two weeks, which was the last time that Leiser saw Fish-Harnack.[63] Leiser found Fish-Harnack changed, from the open and trusting person she had known into someone who seemed distant and superior, a side-effect of the deceit necessary to hide her true feelings in Germany.[64] Fish-Harnack's high school friend Mady Emmerling found Fish-Harnack to be overly cautious, frightened, and reserved, all indicative of having lived in the Nazi state for four years.[65] Fish-Harnack had become used to assuming a persona, orpassing, to fool the Nazi state.[66] Many of her friends assumed from her bearing that she had become a Nazi.[65] Immediately after staying with Leiser, Fish-Harnack went on a campus lecture tour that includedHaverford College,New York University,University of Chicago, and University of Wisconsin, whose theme was "The German Relation to Current American Literature".[67] Leonard attended the lecture at Madison and was unwilling to endorse Fish-Harnack's lecture when she asked for a written recommendation.[67] However, at Haverford,Douglas V. Steere, who did not know her, found her presentation to be "vivid and full of charm".[67] She visited her relatives during the tour and left in the spring to return to Berlin.[68]
Later in 1938, Fish-Harnack worked on her doctoral dissertation, entitled "Die Entwicklung der amerikanischen Literatur der Gegenwart in einigen Hauptvertretern des Romans und der Kurzgeschicht" (transl. "The development of contemporary American literature in some of the main representatives of the novel and the short story"), and was awarded her doctorate at the University of Giessen on November 20, 1941.[69] In 1938 she received a job offer from the Rütten & Loening publishing house in Berlin as a consultant for American novels.[70] The same year, Fish-Harnack joined theDaughters of the American Revolution and became a local representative in Berlin.[70] In October 1939, she applied for the Guggenheim and Rockefeller fellowships but was refused.[71] In 1941 she was hired as an English-language professor at theForeign Studies Department of theFriedrich Wilhelm University, which was run by SS MajorFranz Six.[72]
Leading up to and during the war, Red Orchestra tried to recruit new members, which was difficult due to the ratio of informers to proper recruits in the general populace.[73] The group devised a method to vet potential recruits that would start with inviting them to a meeting, with the approach of making the potential recruit believe the group were Nazis, and lead the person to reveal their political attitude to Nazism through conversation.[74] Harnack lent books to the potential recruit as a test of their intellect, as there was little chance of winning such people over if they did not understand politics.[74] At one meeting, Fish-Harnack held a lecture onKim byRudyard Kipling to help the recruits understandcolonialism.[74]
On March 3, 1938, William Dodd was replaced byHugh Wilson.[75] Joining him as First Secretary and monetary attaché at the U.S. Embassy wasDonald Heath.[76] In 1937, Fish-Harnack met Louise Heath, Donald Heath's wife, at the American Women's Club in Bellevuestraße.[77] The Harnacks became friends with the Heaths.[77] When the war started the Heaths fled to Norway, but when they returned, Louise requested that Fish-Harnack tutor her son, Donald Heath, Jr., in American literature.[77] The two couples spent weekends and occasional holidays together.[78] At times Harnack and Donald would meet in the countryside to exchange intelligence,[77] but it became increasingly dangerous. Between December 1939 and March 1941, Donald Jr., couriered between Fish-Harnack and the U.S. Embassy in Berlin.[77]
During the 1930s, the Harnacks came into contact with other resistance groups and began to cooperate with them. The most important of these was a group run byHarro Schulze-Boysen, aLuftwaffe lieutenant and descendant of an old German military family who had known Harnack since 1935,[79] but was reintroduced to him sometime in late 1939 or early 1940 through Greta Kuckhoff;[80] the Kuckhoffs had known the Schulz-Boysens since 1938 and started to engage them socially in late 1939 or early 1940 by bringing Fish-Harnack andLibertas Schulze-Boysen together while on holiday inSaxony.[81] Of the meeting Greta Kuckhoff wrote,
I saw it clearly before my eyes. From then on our work not only implies the risk of losing our freedom, from now on death was a possibility.[81]
Harro and Libertas were part of a bohemian group of friends that met twice a month in fun meetings in contrast to the Harnacks' austere study meetings. The initial meeting of the women gave rise to a licentious image of the group that persisted for decades after the war, based primarily on Gestapo and Abwehr reports.[82] In his 1967 book,L'orchestre rouge,Gilles Perrault states that Fish-Harnack and Libertas were lesbians.[83][84] However, industrialistHugo Buschmann, who was an informant and Harro's close friend, stated that the group lived dangerously, but there was no evidence for Perrault's conclusion.[83]
On September 17, 1940, the Harnacks met the third secretary member of the Soviet embassy,Alexander Korotkov,[85] and Arvid Harnack decided to resume passing classified information about Hitler's regime to the Soviet Union in order to undermine it.[86] According to lawyerWolfgang Havemann, from that point forward Fish-Harnack endured a persistent fear of being discovered.[87]
The discovery of illegal radio transmissions by the German radiocounterintelligence organizationFunkabwehr in 1942 eventually revealed the members of the group[88] and led to the Harnacks' arrest.[89] The exposure of the radio codes enabledReferat 12, the cipher bureau of the Funkabwehr that had been tracking Red Orchestra radio transmissions since June 1941, to decipher Red Orchestra message traffic. Wenzel's apartment in Brussels was found to contain a large number of coded messages.[90] WhenWilhelm Vauck, principal cryptographer of the Funkabwehr,[91] received the ciphers from Wenzel, he was able to decipher some of the older messages.[91] On July 15, 1942, Vauck decrypted a message dated October 10, 1941[91] that gave the locations of the Kuckhoffs' and Schulze-Boysens' apartments.[92]
On September 7, 1942, the Harnacks were arrested by the Gestapo in Nazi-occupied Lithuania at the seaside village ofPreila on theCuronian Spit.[93]
On December 19, after a four-day trial before theReichskriegsgericht ("ReichMilitary Tribunal"), Mildred Harnack was initially sentenced to six years in prison, butAdolf Hitler refused to endorse the sentence and ordered a new trial, which resulted in a death sentence on January 16, 1943.[94] She wasbeheaded byguillotine on February 16, 1943. While she was imprisoned, Fish-Harnack translated the poemVermächtnis (transl. "Bequest") byJohann Wolfgang von Goethe.[95] Her last words were purported to have been"Und ich habe Deutschland auch so geliebt" ("And I, too, so loved Germany"). She was the only American executed on the direct orders of Adolf Hitler.[96]
After her execution, her body was released to theCharité Anatomical Institute andHumboldt University anatomy professorHermann Stieve to be dissected for his research into the effects of stress, caused by awaiting execution, on themenstrual cycle. After he was finished, he gave what was left to a friend of hers, who had the remains buried in Berlin'sZehlendorf Cemetery. She is the only member of the Berlin-based anti-Nazis whose burial site is known.[97]
When she learned of the execution, Clara Leiser wrote the unfinished poem "To and from the guillotine" in remembrance of her friend.[98]
Arvid's brotherFalk Harnack, also a resistance fighter, was able to escape and survived the Second World War as anELAS partisan in Greece.
Canadian-born writerRebecca Donner is the great-niece of Mildred Harnack, and published in 2021 a book[99] on her life, largely taken from the letters that her grandmother had given her when she was sixteen, with the aim of making a book out of them.[100]
While newspapers learned about the execution shortly after the war, the U.S. government concealed additional information about Harnack's story. TheCounterintelligence Corps (CIC) of the U.S. Army began to investigate her execution as a possible war crime. They acknowledged her work leading a large group secretly fighting the Nazi regime and described her actions as "laudable". However, investigators concluded that since Harnack was actually guilty of espionage and had received a trial, her execution did not constitute a violation of international law. The case was closed.[101]
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