J. R. R. Tolkien's novelsThe Hobbit (1937) andThe Lord of the Rings (1954–55), set in his fictional world ofMiddle-earth, have been the subject of numerous motion picture adaptations across film and television.

Tolkien was skeptical of the prospects of an adaptation. The rights to adapt his works passed through the hands of several studios, having been briefly leased toRembrandt Films before being sold perpetually toUnited Artists, who then passed them in part toSaul Zaentz who operated the rights underMiddle-earth Enterprises. During this time, filmmakers who attempted to adapt Tolkien's works includeWilliam Snyder,Peter Shaffer,John Boorman,Ralph Bakshi,Peter Jackson, andGuillermo del Toro. Other filmmakers who were interested in an adaptation includedWalt Disney,Al Brodax,Forrest J Ackerman,Samuel Gelfman, Denis O'Dell, andHeinz Edelmann.

The first commercial adaptation of Tolkien's works was theRankin/Bass animated television specialThe Hobbit (1977). The first theatrical adaptation wasRalph Bakshi's animated filmThe Lord of the Rings (1978). This was followed by the Rankin/Bass animated television filmThe Return of the King (1980). The first live-action adaptations were European television productions, mostly unlicensed, made in the 1970s and early 1990s.New Line Cinema produced theLord of the Rings film trilogy (2001–2003) directed by Jackson, and later returned to produce hisHobbit film trilogy (2012–2014). The New Line franchise has received a record 37Academy Award nominations, winning 17, and a record three special awards. To prevent New Line from losing the film adaptation rights, ananime prequel film was put into production. SubtitledThe War of the Rohirrim, it was released in 2024. After Middle-earth Enterprises was acquired byEmbracer Group, a new deal was struck with New Line to make two new films. The first was given theworking titleThe Hunt for Gollum and is scheduled for release in 2027. In 2017,Amazon Prime Video bought the right to make a television series, separate from the New Line films. TitledThe Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power, thefirst season was released in 2022 and thesecond in 2024. Three more seasons are planned. Some well-receivedfan films based on Tolkien's novels have been made;The Hunt for Gollum andBorn of Hope were both uploaded to YouTube in 2009.

Tolkien watched films,^[1] but always mistrusted the medium and his books' suitability for dramatization.^[2] He had received fanmail on the matter, some proposing to adapt the works to film and some urging him to refuse such proposals.^[2] Tolkien and his publishers,Allen and Unwin, were willing to play along with film proposals, on condition of having a veto on creative decisions or in return for a sufficient sum of money.^[3][a]

In 1938,Walt Disney considered adaptingThe Hobbit to animation. One ofDisney's animators sent a memo suggesting that elements ofThe Hobbit andRichard Wagner'sRing cycle could be incorporated intoFantasia which was then in the making.^[5] According to the animatorWolfgang Reitherman, Walt Disney wanted to make aLord of the Rings feature film in the 1950s, but his storyboard artists deemed it too complex, too lengthy, and too scary for the company.^[5] In 1972, the storyboard artistVance Gerry pitched an animated adaptation ofThe Hobbit. He illustratedBilbo, and produced a synopsis, stating that the Disney studios had "never done a cartoon with this much story", admitting that "there are far more incidents in the story than we could ever use" and that "many sections are too frightening for our purposes."^[6]

In June 1956, the animatorAl Brodax proposed an animated film adaptation to Tolkien's publishers. The final volume ofThe Lord of the Rings had only just been published in the US, and had not yet achieved the commercial success it reached later. Tolkien, nearing retirement and yet to see a substantial return from his writings, was cautiously interested, saying he would "welcome the idea" of a film, "quite apart from the glint of money",^[3] but nothing came out of it.

In 1956, Tolkien was approached by the American agentForrest J. Ackerman about producing an animated film based on Tolkien's work for the amateur screenwriter Morton Grady Zimmerman. Ackerman showed Tolkien artwork byRon Cobb and pitched Zimmerman's synopsis, which proposed a three-hour film with two intermissions.^[5][3] Tolkien said it was described to him as an animated film, but he professed to being ignorant of the process, and it is possible that Ackerman wished to make a primarily live-action film, using animation, stop-motion and miniature photography.^[5][7][4] Cobb scouted locations aroundCalifornia,^[8] impressing Tolkien with pictures of mountains and deserts.^[3]

Tolkien already had objections –Lothlórien was described to him as a fairy-castle, and he did not like the condensed story^[8] – but he liked the concept art, which he thought akin toArthur Rackham^[9] as opposed to Walt Disney, whom he loathed. While Tolkien noted that a film "would be pleasant",^[3] he delayed in reviewing the synopsis until urged by Unwin. When he delivered his initial notes to Ackerman, the agent was granted a six-month option if he could find a producer to finance the project. He intended to make the film withAmerican International Pictures, but its president James Nicholson declined, as did other studio heads.^[8][5]

Tolkien was sent a 55-page^[10] treatment by Zimmerman, which he greatly disliked.^[11] Keeping his own and his publisher's financial interests in mind, Tolkien was polite but largely critical of the script. He complained of divergence from not only the tone of the book (such as cutting elements "upon which [its] characteristic and peculiar tone principally depends") but also the character representation (such as Sam's leavingFrodo toShelob and going on toMount Doom alone). He took issue with dialogue changes as regards to the "style and sentiment" of characters, and with intercutting between the storylines of Frodo andAragorn, instead of theinterlacing in the book. He suggested eliminating the battle ofHelm's Deep to better emphasize the defence ofMinas Tirith, and cutting characters instead of diminishing their roles. Tolkien protested against added "incantations, blue lights, and some irrelevant magic" and "a preference for fights".^[4]

Nevertheless, Tolkien did not wish to kill the project, saying "I think [it] promised well on the pictorial side."^[12] Ackerman filed to extend his lease to a year, but he was unable to pay for the extension, and negotiations ended.^[13][4][5] The treatment was criticised by Ian Nathan,^[14]Tom Shippey^[15] and others;Kristin Thompson noted the amateur nature of the enterprise, saying that it never represented a serious attempt at a commercial film.^[7] Zimmerman, who avoided filmmaking after this ordeal,^[4] donated his script to the Tolkien collection.^[15]

In 1959, Tolkien entered brief negotiations with Robert Gutwillig to adaptThe Lord of the Rings. Tolkien told Gutwillig he had "given a considerable amount of time and thought" to a film adaptation, noting "some ideas concerning what I think would be desirable" as well as the "difficulties" involved.^[5] Tolkien spoke with Gutwillig's agent and producer,Samuel W. Gelfman. Their discussion was apparently amicable; Tolkien found Gelfman intelligent and reasonable,^[16] and Gelfman later recalled that they talked about the details of an adaptation,^[17] but nothing came of it.^[5]

Tolkien later received a suggestion in fan-mail to haveThe Hobbit adapted to a serial in four intervals, declined by his publisherRayner Unwin for its potential to "incarcerate us in the localodeons for nine or ten hours."^[5]

Tolkien negotiated television rights separately. Carole Ward suggested adaptingThe Lord of the Rings for television in 1964, to air on the newly launchedBBC2.ITV launched a competing offer, according to which the book would be adapted via puppetry, which Tolkien found contemptuous. Another attempt at purchasing the television rights was made in 1968.^[18]

Live-action fantasy became fashionable in the early 1960s with the success ofRay Harryhausen's stop-motion productions. By 1967, Gelfman established Katzka-Bernie productions withGabriel Katzka and entered negotiations with Tolkien to adaptThe Lord of the Rings for United Artists,^[5][17] "with an option forThe Hobbit."^[7] As with Snyder, the emerging contracts would provide United Artists with complete creative freedom over the works, and offered them first bidding at the television rights, which were negotiated separately but never sold to them.^[19]

Meanwhile, a couple of American teenagers unsuccessfully attempted to obtain the rights toThe Hobbit.^[5] Joy Hill, Tolkien's secretary who worked for Allen & Unwin, was said to have contacted Disney for the rights at the time,^[1] perhaps to place United Artists in a competitive position.MGM were said to have been interested in the rights at that time.^[20]

United Artists were the studio behind several of the lucrative widescreen epics of the decade. In the 1960s, long widescreen epics (presented as aroadshow with an intermission) still proved successful, but few sequels were made in that genre, and therefore Katzka-Bernie commissioned SirPeter Shaffer to write a treatment for a single, three-hour film adaptation ofThe Lord of the Rings. This was deemed "elegant",^[21] withThe Hobbit in mind as a potential prequel. Merchandising was of little concern at the time, but the rights for such products were included in the contract. Negotiations extended until 1969, when the rights were sold off for $250,000 and 7.5% of gross receipts, minus expenses, to be paid to Tolkien. Shaffer's script never got off the ground, but the rights were sold to United Artists in perpetuity, including the option to pass the rights to another studio. The singerArlo Guthrie pitched an animated feature to the studio, but UA were adamant they wanted the film to be live-action, although the contract options an animated film.^[5]

Stanley Unwin suggested that Tolkien's inexperience in dealing with movie producers led to the generous conditions of the contract.^[7] Now elderly, Tolkien's desire to set up a trust fund for his grandchildren could indicate that he might not have expected to live and see the resulting film, and wanted to use the profits to take care of his ailing wife.^[5] The increase in income tax rates at the time decreased Tolkien's profits from book sales, and he expected a fall-off in the sales in years to come.^[22] In 1968, Tolkien expressed skepticism about film adaptation of his works, saying "it's easier to film theOdyssey".^[2]

The Beatles were on a three-picture deal with United Artists. Their previous two features,A Hard Day's Night andHelp!, directed byRichard Lester, were successful. When it became clear that the animatedYellow Submarine would not count as part of this deal, Denis O'Dell (head of the Beatles'Apple Films) entered negotiations for their third film. He came up with the idea of aLord of the Rings "multimedia musical extravaganza",^[21] starring the Beatles as the four Hobbits. He learned that United Artists were in negotiations for the rights.^[23] In conversation with studio headsDavid and Arnold Picker, it was decided that a "star director" was required. O'Dell shortlistedDavid Lean,Stanley Kubrick, andMichelangelo Antonioni.^[24] Lean declined.^[23] O'Dell left toIndia to visit the Beatles, with the books in his suitcase. At the behest ofDonovan, the band examined the books and began to think "seriously" about the idea.^[21] According to O'Dell,John Lennon fancied the role ofGandalf, butGeorge Harrison recalled that Lennon then wanted to swap for Frodo.Ringo Starr wanted to playSam, whilePaul McCartney coveted Frodo. Lennon would have been Gollum, Ringo Sam, and Harrison Gandalf.Donovan was keen on Merry, and they wantedTwiggy for Galadriel.^[25][26][23]

Kubrick declined, telling O'Dell the books were excellent, but "unfilmable".^[23][27] Kubrick had worked on genre films and had pioneered special effects in2001: A Space Odyssey, but it proved complex to produce, and he had difficulty depicting the aliens onscreen, which would have made him wary of the prospect of rendering fantasy creatures. He was still promoting that film and it was not making the box-office returns that he had hoped for.Chris Conkling^[28] andPeter Jackson^[29] later said that making it live-action at the time was inconceivable; Ralph Bakshi said it could have been made, but would have been "very tacky."^[30]

Heinz Edelmann, a fan of the book and art director onYellow Submarine, pitched his own idea for an adaptation to United Artists. Thinking that a "straight"^[31] adaptation of the story was impossible, he wanted to do an animated film in the style ofFantasia or "rock opera" with aKurosawa-like aesthetic.^[5] He considered theRolling Stones to star, but then latched onto the Beatles; however, United Artists wanted a live-action film.^[8]

O'Dell talked to Antonioni,^[32] who is said to have been keener,^[33] but the project never started.^[34][35] The group argued over their desired parts, and Harrison and McCartney were skeptical.^[36] McCartney remembers that Tolkien had reservations.^[37] There were false rumours that the Beatles and Kubrick^[38] talked about an adaptation in 1965.^[5][32]After the rights were secured andJohn Boorman made his script, the idea of casting the Beatles (as the four Hobbits) was brought back to the table by David Picker, until the band's separation became publicly known in 1970.^[39] In retrospect, O'Dell is skeptical of the whole venture.^[40][41] Others involved had since described the project as "inspired showmanship."^[42]

According to Peter Jackson, Tolkien disliked "the idea of a pop group doing his story" and thus "nixed" the project.^[43]

In 1969,John Boorman approached David Picker about an Arthurian epic; Picker instead commissioned him to doThe Lord of the Rings as a single, three-hour film.^[44] Boorman thought it impossible, but allowed himself to be persuaded.^[33][45] The project was announced in 1970, to be co-produced by Gabriel Katzka.^[46]

Boorman had wanted Tolkien to have a cameo in his film, and corresponded with Tolkien about the project, telling him he intended to make it with small people playing the Hobbits and in live-action, which Tolkien preferred. He considered having children dressed with facial hair, dubbed by adult actors.^[4][47]Al Pacino was considered for Frodo,^[42] and Sauron is described in the script as looking likeMick Jagger. In retrospect, Boorman recognized that it "might have been" a disaster,^[48] saying that a trilogy was a wiser choice.^[42] Pallenberg was sorry that they never got to revise the script, which exists only as a rough draft;^[31] Boorman has described it as "almost unmakeable."^[49] Bakshi later exaggerated it as a 700-page screenplay,^[4] but at 178 pages, Boorman and Pallenberg wanted to reduce it to around 150.^[50]

The script added many new elements and modified others. It downplayed theCatholic aspects of the work in favour of aJungian, surrealistic, counter-culture interpretation, with carnal elements.Gimli is put in a hole and beaten so he can retrieve the password toMoria from his ancestral memory; Frodo andGaladriel have sexual intercourse;Arwen is a teenaged spiritual guide, while her role asAragorn's love interest is transferred toÉowyn; Aragorn's healing of Éowyn takes place on the battlefield and has sexual overtones; the Orcs turn good with Sauron's defeat. To cut costs, all flying steeds were removed.^[4][47][51] As in Boorman's other genre films, he let his earlier concept of Merlin influence his writing of Gandalf, while Galadriel's emergence from the lake recalls his ArthurianLady of the Lake.^[4]

By the time Boorman returned to head of production,Mike Medavoy, the studio had suffered a series of commercial failures. David and Arnold Picker were replaced byArthur B. Krim andRobert Benjamin, who had not read Tolkien's books. They were intrigued, but the script called for more expensive optical effects than was originally conceived, and the executives were unsure the audience would be sufficient,^[52] thinking the genre mostly appealed to children, and the project stalled.^[42] Boorman tried shopping the project at other studios. Disney were interested, but balked at the violence;^[53] no other studio was interested in making a widescreen epic. Boorman remembers that as late as 1975, "all I got was embarrassed smiles".^[54] In the early 1990s, Boorman again contacted Medavoy aboutThe Lord of the Rings using new special effects technologies, but the project fell apart when Zaentz wanted more money,^[52] demanding merchandising rights for himself.^[42]

Zaentz rejected many proposals for film adaptations in years to come,^[55] including fromMark Ordesky andJohn Boorman.Universal once contacted him for the rights, to no avail.^[20] In 1993, European producers commissioned a treatment for two or three live-action films, but terminated the project when it became apparent that Zaentz would not extend the rights to them.^[56] In 1997, Alan Lee was sent a script for a twelve-part TV adaptation byITV Granada, for which they "couldn't get the approval" from Zaentz.^[57]Franco Zeffirelli,Jake Kasdan,^[58] SirRidley Scott,^[59]Steven Spielberg andGeorge Lucas were rumoured^[60] to have had an interest in the rights in the 1980s and/or 1990s.The Hobbit was an influence onGeorge Lucas'sStar Wars,^[61] and he later entered a lucrative partnership with Spielberg in producing and writing the stories for hisIndiana Jones films. It was supposedly Lucas' inability to acquire the rights toThe Hobbit (which would have been split between Zaentz and UA, anyway) that led to the creation ofAn Ewok Adventure andWillow,^[62] both heavily indebted toThe Hobbit.Willow was eventually directed byRon Howard, financed by Lucasfilm and distributed by MGM, and its inability to make substantial profits ended the high-fantasy productions of the 1980s. Nevertheless, Spielberg'sDreamWorks Pictures reportedly tried for the rights in the early 1990s.^[20]

In 1961,William L. Snyder negotiated the rights to adaptThe Hobbit to animation for his Oscar-winning company, Rembrandt films. He leasedThe Hobbit for five years. Due to a mishap in the publishing of the first edition, the book was public domain in the US; Snyder renegotiated the lease to give Tolkien and Unwin only a $15,000 advance.^[7] Tolkien thought Snyder was "sure to perpetrate [...] many objectionable things"^[5] but leased the rights to the producer in 1962.^[5] Snyder commissioned cartoonistGene Deitch to write a script for a feature-lengthHobbit cartoon; this took liberties with the text, inserting a princess of Dale who undertakes the Quest and ends up married to Bilbo. Deitch was unaware ofThe Lord of the Rings until later, when he incorporated the concept of the Ring of Power into the Gollum (or Goloom, as he is called in the piece) episode later in the writing, makingThe Lord of the Rings sequel possible.^[5]

When a deal with20th Century Fox fell through and the rights were due to expire, Snyder commissioned Deitch to quickly make a condensed film to fulfil the requirements of the contract. The deal was for an animated, colour film but did not specify length; Deitch was told to compress the story intoan animated short, screened inNew York in 1967 to prolong Snyder's now-valuable lease on the rights.^[7]

Deitch's film was the first onscreen depiction of any of Tolkien's works, but it was little more than a narrated picture-book; a narrator tells the 12-minute short story over a series of animation stills. It was exhibited only once, in a projection room at New York to around twelve spectators pulled from the street and provided the admission money by the exhibitors, so that they could sign a document stating that they paid to see a colour film based onThe Hobbit.^[7]

Deitch stated that the extended lease included the rights toThe Lord of the Rings, and that the rights to both novels were sold back to Tolkien for a higher price.^{[63][64][65][8]} However, the publisherStanley Unwin maintains that Snyder continued to hold only the rights toThe Hobbit, which were sold directly to United Artists when they secured the rights toThe Lord of the Rings.^[7]

In 1972, the animatorsRankin and Bass decided to adapt Tolkien's works to animation as part of their series of television specials. Rankin thought adapting the whole ofLord of the Rings was impossible, and that the audience "wouldn't sit still for it."^[66] He decided thatThe Hobbit would be manageable,^[67] although portions ofThe Lord of the Rings were optioned as a sequel given pressure from the network. At $2 million to produce, the special would prove the costliest made up to that time;^[5] it starredJohn Huston, a fan of the book, as Gandalf.^[68]

They contacted the Tolkien Estate, who declined, but Rankin pointed out that the books were public domain in the US.^[69][66] The Estate, along with Saul Zaentz who had purchased the film rights, tried to stop the production through a lawsuit, but it instead "became authorized through a series of settlement agreements" which allowed the special to air in Canada, where the books were not public domain.^[70]

The making of the special was announced in April 1973 byTomorrow Entertainment.^[71] The designs were done by Rankin, Bass and several Japanese animators working in the United States. Lester Abrams sent Rankin 20 character designs after Rankin and Bass liked his work on an excerpt of Tolkien forChildren's Digest. He was brought on board again later in the production to help illustrate the Dwarves – basing Thorin on concept art for Disney's Grumpy. He drew Gollum as a corrupted Hobbit, but Rankin insisted that he be made more ferocious.^[28]Romeo Muller was employed to write the teleplay. His first draft tried to encompass the whole of the story, plus a setup forThe Lord of the Rings at the end. Rankin had him pare it down, and at one point wanted to cut out the spiders, but was talked out of it by Lester. Beorn was "sacrificed" to keep the Spiders.^[28][72]

The television special received mixed reactions. In 1978, Muller won aPeabody Award for the teleplay. The film was nominated for theHugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, but lost toStar Wars.^[73]Douglas A. Anderson, a Tolkien scholar, called the adaptation "execrable" in his introduction to theAnnotated Hobbit.^[74] Ian Nathan considers it "regrettable" and "twee."^[75]

In 1957,Ralph Bakshi sought the rights for an animated version,^[77] aiming to make a Tolkienesque fantasy film "in the American idiom"; this led to the 1977 animationWizards. After Tolkien's death in 1973, Bakshi started an "annual trip" to Medavoy, proposing that United Artists produceThe Lord of the Rings as two or three animated films,^[44] with aHobbit prequel.^[12] Medavoy offered him Boorman's script, which Bakshi refused, saying that Boorman "didn't understand it" and that his script would have made for a cheap product like "a Roger Corman film".^[78] He later called the Rankin-Bass TV special an "awful, sell-out version ofThe Hobbit."^[79] Medavoy did not want to produce Bakshi's film, but allowed him to shop it around to other studios.^[78]

In 1976, Bakshi andDan Melnick, then-president ofMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer, purchased the film rights from United Artists for $3 million, and Bakshi started pre-production and writing; he enlisted Chris Conkling to research the script. With $200,000 spent, Melnick was fired from MGM.^[44] Bakshi persuadedSaul Zaentz to produceThe Lord of the Rings.^[44] Zaentz had recently produced the Academy Award-winning adaptation ofOne Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, distributed by United Artists, and agreed to buy the project. UA stayed as the distributors. Zaentz was only able to offer a humble budget of $8 million.^[78] Since Bakshi was primarily interested in Tolkien's more adult-oriented novel, Zaentz's Fantasy Films procured the rights toThe Lord of the Rings as well as the rights forThe Hobbit. The rights to distribute the prequel remained with United Artists. Bakshi later clarified that he thought the film could "make some money" to save his studio after the commercial failure of his previous film,Coonskin.^[80]

With Conkling, Bakshi considered how to divide the story. They contemplated a three-film structure, but "we didn't know how that middle film would work".^[28] Conkling started writing a single three-and-a-half hour feature of the entire work, but eventually settled on two two-and-a-half hour films. At one point, the story was to be told in flashback by Merry and Pippin to Treebeard as a setup for the second film, tentatively set to be released in 1980. Early drafts by Conkling includedFarmer Maggot,Tom Bombadil,the Old Forest, Glorfindel, Arwen, and several songs.^[10] Conkling's work was deemed unsatisfactory by Bakshi and Zaentz, who brought in Peter S. Beagle to do rewrites. He insisted on a complete overhaul, and wrote a version which began at Bilbo's Farewell Party, continuing untilSaruman's death, while Frodo and Sam left Cirith Ungol. This was abbreviated in later revisions to create a two-and-a-half hour film.^[28] The final revisions overlapped with the voice recording in London, accounting for inconsistencies like the spelling of "Saruman" (originally changed to Aruman to avoid confusion with Sauron) in the film. Bakshi constantly revised the story at the behest of anxious fans.^[81]

Bakshi was approached byMick Jagger^[78] andDavid Carradine^[30] for roles in the film. Carradine even suggested that Bakshi do it in live-action, but Bakshi said it could not be done and that he had "always seen it as animation."^[44]

Bakshi went to England to recruit a voice cast from the BBC Drama Repertory Company, includingChristopher Guard,William Squire, Michael Scholes,Anthony Daniels, andJohn Hurt. Bakshi then shot character actors playing to the recording in empty soundstages, rotoscoping the performances.^[78] Bakshi later regretted his use of rotoscoping, stating that he made a mistake by tracing the source footage rather than using it as a guide.^[82] Live-action footage for crowd scenes was shot inDeath Valley and in Spain.^[78] To cut costs, cinematographer Timothy Galfas suggested solarizing the crowd scenes rather than fully rotoscoping them, to create a pseudo-animated look. The film was animated in the United States by Bakshi's studio. Bakshi had only four weeks to edit the film, of which little was reportedly left on the cutting room floor. The whole project from pitch to release lasted about two years.^[7]

Arthur Krim was replaced at United Artists byAndy Albeck, who objected to marketing the film as the first of two parts. After test screenings, it was decided to switch the last two sequences, so that the film would not end on the cliffhanger of Frodo and Sam being led into a trap by Gollum. The film was released without any indication that a second part would follow, over Bakshi's objections.^[44][83] Rated PG, it was the longest animated film made at the time, and cost $8–12 million^[46] to produce; it grossed $30.5 million at thebox office.^[84] However, the sum did not tempt the studio into making a sequel,^[44] and merchandise and VHS sales were not promising. The film won the Golden Gryphon at the 1980 Giffoni Film Festival,^[85] but critical reaction was mixed;Roger Ebert called Bakshi's effort a "mixed blessing" and "an entirely respectable, occasionally impressive job ... [which] still falls far short of the charm and sweep of the original story."^[86] Peter Jackson described the film's second half as "incoherent" and confusing.^[87]

Work began on a sequel, and Bakshi and Zaentz tried to stop Rankin and Bass from airing theLord of the Rings television special to avoid overlap with their film, but fearing a fall-off in revenue from the sequel, the studio would only sign-off on a budget half that of the first film, which led the already disheartened Bakshi to argue with Zaentz and quit.^{[46][28][88][42][55]} In 2000, Bakshi was still toying with making part two with Zaentz.^{[89][90][91][92]}

TheBBC's 1981 radio adaptation recruited veterans of Bakshi's voice cast,Michael Graham Cox andPeter Woodthorpe, to reprise their roles (Boromir andGollum, respectively) from the film.^[93] SirIan Holm voiced Frodo.^[93]

In 1980, Rankin/Bass more or less completed what Bakshi had started with their own animated adaptation ofThe Return of the King,^[94] based on the concepts previously applied to theirThe Hobbit. Contrary to reports that the film was made following the failure of Bakshi's film, it was already in pre-production before Rankin/Bass releasedThe Hobbit.^[67] Zaentz and Bakshi sued Rankin and Bass to prevent the television special from airing, but were unsuccessful.^[95] Rankin/Bass first titled the filmFrodo: The Hobbit II, but as part of their settlement with Tolkien's estate, it was renamedThe Return of the King, with the subtitle "A Story of Hobbits".^[96] In retrospect, Rankin expressed regret over the unsuccessful television special, saying "we shouldn't have made it."^[97]

The first live-action adaptations of Tolkien were European television productions made in the 1970s and early 1990s, mostly unlicensed. In 1971, the Swedish broadcasterSveriges Television airedSagan om Ringen, a short broadcast in two parts, consisting of live-action actors against animated backgrounds. It was based onThe Fellowship of the Ring, and directed byBo Hansson, who had previously made a music album based onThe Lord of the Rings, under license from the Tolkien Estate.^[98]

In 1985, the Soviet Union airedThe Fabulous Journey of Mr. Bilbo Baggins the Hobbit (Russian:Сказочное путешествие мистера Бильбо Беггинса Хоббита), a television special based on the events ofThe Hobbit. Shot in 1984 as a teleplay and produced in the framework of the children's television seriesTale after Tale (Russian:Сказка за сказкой), it featured actors such asZinovy Gerdt as Narrator (Tolkien), Mikhail Danilov as Bilbo Baggins,Anatoly Ravikovich as Thorin andIgor Dmitriev as Gollum.^[99] Work on a combined animated/stop motionHobbit cartoon, titledTreasures Under the Mountain, started in 1991, but the production stopped at an early stage, and only a six-minute intro is known to exist.^[100]

A live-action adaptation ofThe Fellowship of the Ring,Khraniteli ("Keepers" or "Guardians" [of the Ring]) was aired once in the Soviet Union in 1991, and was thought lost,^[102][103] but was rediscovered and republished on the Web. It includes plot elements such asTom Bombadil and theBarrow-wight omitted from Jackson's version, but has basic sets and "ludicrous" green-screen effects.^[101]

In 1993, the Finnish broadcasterYle produced a nine-episode live-action miniseries calledHobitit ("The Hobbits"). Despite the name it was based onThe Lord of the Rings rather thanThe Hobbit; but it included only the parts of the story that the hobbits had witnessed themselves. The series was written and directed byTimo Torikka; Toni Edelmann composed the soundtrack.^[104] This is the only film adaptation which includes "The Scouring of the Shire", and, until the recovery of the Soviet movie, the only one known to include Tom Bombadil and the Barrow-wight. It aired again in 1998, but then the rights to broadcast it were revoked.^[105]

The directorPeter Jackson brought Middle-earth to the big screen in six live-action feature films released byWarner Bros. Jackson pitched the idea of adaptingThe Lord of the Rings andThe Hobbit toMiramax Films in 1995. He had seen Bakshi'sLord of the Rings in 1978, enjoyed it, and "wanted to know more",^[29] reading a tie-in version of the book and listening to the 1981 BBC radio adaptation. Assuming that it would be made into a live-action film, he read about previous attempts to adapt the work – by Boorman, Kubrick and Lean – but did not know what was myth and what was not at the time.^[106] He watched and enjoyed the fantasy films and space operas of the 1980s. He later read Tolkien's letters and learned that Forrest Ackerman, who appeared in Jackson'sBad Taste, had tried to make a film in the 1950s.^[106]

While he was aware that "three films would obviously be the more natural way to do"^[107]The Lord of the Rings, and thatThe Hobbit would better be split across two films,^[108] he made a more modest offer of a trilogy: one film based onThe Hobbit which, if successful, would be followed by twoLord of the Rings instalments, released six months apart. Although Jackson and his partnerFran Walsh re-readThe Hobbit and commissioned their workshop at WETA for some concept art, the rights toThe Hobbit proved difficult because they were split between Zaentz andMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer'sUnited Artists. The Weinsteins tried to purchase the rights from UA, but were unsuccessful.^[109]

Jackson, Walsh and Miramax decided to move ahead withThe Lord of the Rings, leavingThe Hobbit as a possible prequel. Jackson insisted on making two films;^[107][110] the Weinsteins "blanched"^[107] but agreed. While filming, Jackson told Elijah Wood he was not interested in directingThe Hobbit, but during post-production onThe Two Towers, spoke more enthusiastically of it with the composer Howard Shore.^[111] Jackson also later made remarks about potential spinoff films^[112] and even half-joking remarks about television spin-off shows.^[113]

Eventually, it became clear that the scope of the project was beyond Miramax Films' ability to finance. An appeal to its parent company,Disney, for additional funding was denied: the CEOMichael Eisner later claimed this was because Weinstein refused to show Eisner the scripts,^[110] but his decision to split the percentage evenly with the Weinsteins may speak to a more fundamental mistrust in the project. Miramax looked to co-operate with other studios such asDreamWorks Pictures andLucasfilm Ltd., but was unsuccessful.^[114]

The Weinsteins suggested reducing the project to a single, two-hour film. Jackson was willing to consider this, if the film was to be around four hours in length, but Miramax Films limited it to two hours, and offered suggestions in order to achieve this, namely amalgamating Gondor and Rohan. They contactedHossein Amini to rewrite and threatened to getJohn Madden orQuentin Tarantino to direct. Jackson believes this was an empty threat to get him to do the one-film version. He refused, but his agent Ken Kamins convinced Weinstein that getting another filmmaker to work on the project would result in further delays and costs, at which point Weinstein allowed Jackson to find another studio to take over.^[114][110]

Robert Zemeckis/ImageMovers,Universal, and DreamWorks Pictures declined.Fox were interested, but unwilling to enter a project involving Saul Zaentz, andSony andCentropolis did not find the scripts to their liking. Weinstein limited the turnaround to three weeks, hoping that Jackson would have to come back to him and direct the one-film version.^[114][110]

In 1998, New Line Cinema assumed production and distribution responsibility while the Weinsteins retained on-screen credits as executive producers. The three films were shot simultaneously. They featured extensivecomputer-generated imagery, including major battle scenes utilizing the "Massive" software program. The first film, subtitledThe Fellowship of the Ring, was released on 19 December 2001; the second, subtitledThe Two Towers, on 18 December 2002; and the third, subtitledThe Return of the King, worldwide on 17 December 2003. All three won theHugo Award for Best (Long-form) Dramatic Presentation in their respective years.^{[115][116][117]}

The films were met with both critical and commercial success. With 30 nominations, the trilogy became the most-nominated in the Academy's history,^[118] surpassing theGodfather series' 28 (with the release ofThe Hobbit, the series currently has 36 nominations total). Of these, Jackson's adaptations garnered seventeen Oscar statuettes and three Scientific and Technical awards: four forThe Fellowship of the Ring, two forThe Two Towers, eleven forThe Return of the King plus two Scientific and Technical Awards, and one such award forAn Unexpected Journey, "for the development of the Tissue Physically–Based Character Simulation Framework."^[119]

The Return of the King won all the eleven awards for which it was nominated, including Best Picture; as well as aTechnical Achievement Award and theScientific and Engineering Award.^[120]Titanic six years earlier and the 1959 version ofBen-Hur each won eleven awards overall, an industry record until the release ofThe Return of the King. The film also broke the previous "sweep" record, beatingGigi andThe Last Emperor, which each took 9 out of 9.^[121]The Return of the King became the highest-grossing film opening on a Wednesday, and was the second film afterTitanic to earn over US$1 billion worldwide. TheLord of the Rings film trilogy became the highest grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time, evidenced by its earning close to $3-billion (US).^[122] Critics have hailed the trilogy as "the greatest films of our era,"^[123] and "the trilogy will not soon, if ever, find its equal."^[124]

The series drew acclaim from within the industry, including from people formerly interested in adapting Tolkien: Ackerman, who appeared on Jackson'sBad Taste said his pitch "could never have been given the grand treatment that Peter Jackson afforded it."^[8] Deitch thought the films were "serious and great."^[63] McCartney said he loved the films, and watched them each Christmas with his family.^[125] Boorman was happy about his film's cancellation, as it resulted in Jackson's films.^[125] On the other hand, Edelmann said he thought it was "badly directed", and that "Tolkein [sic] wasn't such a great storyteller."^[126] Bakshi felt that the film was derivative of his own without due acknowledgment,^[30] and that Jackson "didn't really get it."^[91] However, he did praise the effects of "thousands of men in armies attacks each other."^[127] Bakshi's writer, Peter Beagle, said Jackson has done it the only way possible, by making three different movies" and one of Bakshi's animators, Michael Ploog, said the trilogy was "brilliantly handled."^[81]

Jackson was unsure if he should directThe Hobbit, so as to not compete with himself, but he did want to produce and write an adaptation of the book. He considered helming aHobbit film and aLord of the Rings prequel film in 2006,^[128] before deciding to produce two films based onThe Hobbit for a director of his choosing. New Line suggestedSam Raimi to direct, but in 2008,Guillermo Del Toro was chosen to direct a two-film adaptation, produced by Jackson and co-written with Walsh,Philippa Boyens, and Del Toro. Time constraints caused Del Toro to bow out, and Jackson stepped in to direct. Other directors said to have been considered areNeill Blomkamp,David Yates,David Dobkin andBrett Ratner.^[129]

During principal photography, Jackson looked at assembled footage and decided to split the piece into three instalments, released between 2012 and 2014. The three films are subtitledAn Unexpected Journey,The Desolation of Smaug andThe Battle of the Five Armies.^[130] As withThe Lord of the Rings trilogy, the prequel movies were filmedback to back in New Zealand; principal photography began on 21 March 2011.^[131]

The films starMartin Freeman asBilbo Baggins,^[132]Richard Armitage asThorin Oakenshield andBenedict Cumberbatch asSmaug.^[133] Several actors fromThe Lord of the Rings reprised their roles, includingIan McKellen,Andy Serkis,Hugo Weaving,Cate Blanchett,Christopher Lee,Ian Holm,Elijah Wood andOrlando Bloom.^[134]

Also returning were the heads of almost all departments in the production: the only major changes in the staff were of the role of the gaffer (afterBrian Bansgrove died) and with stunt co-ordinator Glen Boswall replacingGeorge Marshall Ruge.^[135] EditorJabez Olssen, who worked on the editing of the Rings trilogy,^[136] edited all three Hobbit films.^[137]

In June 2021, New Line announced an anime prequel aboutHelm Hammerhand, a legendary King of Rohan, set around 200 years before the events ofThe Lord of the Rings.Kenji Kamiyama was directing the film, titledThe Lord of the Rings: The War of the Rohirrim.^[138] The film is produced by Boyens and written by her daughter, Phoebe Gittins, as well as Gittens's writing partner Arty Papageorgiou.^[139] The film was put into production to prevent Warner Bros. and New Line from losing the film adaptation rights for the novels, but Zaentz was not convinced that the studios were meeting their obligations.^[140] In October 2024, Boyens said the producers had an idea for a second animeThe Lord of the Rings film, but they were waiting to see how wellThe War of the Rohirrim was received.^[141] The film was released in December 2024.^[142]

After Middle-earth Enterprises was acquired byEmbracer Group, Warner Bros. and New Line signed a new deal with them to make moreThe Lord of the Rings live-action films.^[143] In May 2024, the studios announced that two new films were in development with Jackson, Walsh, and Boyens producing. The first new film was given theworking titleThe Lord of the Rings: The Hunt for Gollum, with Serkis directing from a screenplay by Walsh, Boyens, Gittins, and Papageorgiou.^[144] In October 2024, Boyens stated that "we’ve begun to work, conceptually, on two different live-action films. The first beingThe Hunt For Gollum, the second one still to be confirmed." She added that the ideas for both of the films included the character of Gandalf.^[145] In February 2025, Serkis said filming would take place in 2026.^[146]RNZ reported thatWellington, New Zealand would serve as the production hub for the newLord of the Rings films.^[147] In June 2024, SirIan McKellen said he was open to playing the role of Gandalf again in future projects.^[148] At a fan event in August 2025, McKellen said that "There's a character in the movie called Frodo, and there's a character in the movie called Gandalf", though he did not specify whether he orElijah Wood, who was also present at the event, would be reprising their roles.^[149]The Hunt for Gollum is scheduled to be released on 17 December 2027.^[150]

Amazon bought the television rights forThe Lord of the Rings for US$250 million in November 2017, making a five-season production commitment worth at least US$1 billion. This would make it the most expensive television series ever made. The series is primarily based on the appendices ofThe Lord of the Rings, which include discussion of the Second Age, and it features a large cast from around the world. For legal reasons, it is not a direct continuation of Jackson'sThe Lord of the Rings andThe Hobbit film trilogies, but the production is intended to evoke the films with similar production design and younger versions of the same incarnations of characters who appear in them. Thefirst season premiered on Prime Video on 2 September 2022.^{[151][152][153]} Thesecond season premiered on Prime Video on 29 August 2024.^[154]

The Hunt for Gollum, afan film based on elements of the appendices toThe Lord of the Rings, was released on the internet in May 2009. It is set between the events ofThe Hobbit andThe Fellowship of the Ring, and depictsAragorn's quest to findGollum. The film's visual style is based on that of the Jackson films. Although unofficial, it has received coverage in major media and praise for its production quality.^[155]

Another fan made feature film,Born of Hope, produced and directed byKate Madison, was released online on 1 December 2009 onDailymotion and later onYouTube. It is set before the events ofThe Hobbit. The film can be streamed freely on its main website.^[156] LikeThe Hunt for Gollum, this film triggered reviews in various media.^[157]

Commercial and legal pressures on would-be fan film producers are substantial; at least one such project, the 2013–14Storm over Gondolin,^[158] was forced to close by theTolkien Estate. There are pressures, too, from other fans; some projects have been abandoned when their trailers were inundated by fan criticism.^[159]

• Adaptations ofThe Hobbit
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