Mid-century modern architecture
Tract house inTujunga, California, featuring open-beamed ceilings, c. 1960
Additional media
Years active	1945–1970
Location	All the world. Mainly inNorth America,Brazil andEurope[1]
Influences	International,Bauhaus

Mid-century modern (MCM) is "a style of design popular in the mid-twentieth century, characterized by clean, simple lines and lack of embellishment."^[2] The style was present throughout the world, but gained most popularity inNorth America,Brazil andEurope from roughly 1945 to 1970 during the United States'post-World War II period. MCM style can be seen in interior design, product design, graphic design, architecture and urban development.^[3]

MCM-styledecor and architecture have seen a major resurgence that began in the late 1990s and continues today.^[4]

The term was used as early as the mid-1950s, and was defined as adesign movement by Cara Greenberg in her 1984 bookMid-Century Modern: Furniture of the 1950s. It is now recognized byscholars andmuseums worldwide as a significant design movement.

The MCM design aesthetic is modern in style and construction, aligned with themodernist movement of the period. It is typically characterized by clean, simple lines and honest use of materials, and generally does not include decorative embellishments.

On the exterior, a MCM home is normally very wide, partialbrick orglass walls, low footprints with floor to ceiling windows and flat rooflines, while exposed ceilings and beams, open floor plans, ergonomically designed furniture and short staircases connecting rooms throughout the house often defines the home's interior.

The mid-century modern movement in the U.S. was an American reflection of theInternational andBauhaus movements, including the works ofGropius,Florence Knoll,Le Corbusier, andLudwig Mies van der Rohe.^[5] Although the American component was slightly more organic in form and less formal than the International Style, it is more firmly related to it than any other.

Brazilian andScandinavian architects were very influential at this time, with a style characterized by clean simplicity and integration with nature. Like many ofWright's designs, mid-century architecture was frequently employed in residential structures with the goal of bringing modernism into America's post-war suburbs.

This style emphasized creating structures with ample windows and open floor plans, with the intention of opening up interior spaces and bringing the outdoors in. Many mid-century houses utilized then-groundbreakingpost and beam architectural design that eliminated bulky support walls in favor of walls seemingly made of glass. Function was as important as form in mid-century designs, with an emphasis placed on targeting the needs of the average American family.

In Europe, the influence ofLe Corbusier and theCIAM resulted in an architectural orthodoxy manifest across most parts of post-war Europe that was ultimately challenged by the radical agendas of the architectural wings of the avant-gardeSituationist International,COBRA, as well asArchigram in London.

A critical but sympathetic reappraisal of the internationalist oeuvre, inspired by Scandinavian Moderns such asAlvar Aalto,Sigurd Lewerentz andArne Jacobsen, and the late work of Le Corbusier himself, was reinterpreted by groups such asTeam X, includingstructuralist architects such asAldo van Eyck,Ralph Erskine,Denys Lasdun,Jørn Utzon and the movement known in the United Kingdom asNew Brutalism.

Pioneering builder and real estate developerJoseph Eichler was instrumental in bringing mid-century modern architecture ("Eichler Homes") to subdivisions in the Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay region ofCalifornia, and select housing developments on the east coast.

George Fred Keck, his brother Willam Keck,Henry P. Glass, Mies van der Rohe, and Edward Humrich created mid-century modern residences in the Chicago area. Mies van der Rohe'sFarnsworth House is extremely difficult to heat or cool, while Keck and Keck were pioneers in the incorporation ofpassive solar features in their houses to compensate for their large glass windows.

Many European designers moved to the United States during the 1930s and 1940s, including Walter Gropius, Mies van der Rohe, and Eliel Saarinen. These designers played a large role in shaping American mid-century modern interior design. They believed that well-designed environments could have a positive influence on behavior and quality of life. Their contributions helped move interior design away from decorative traditions and to a more intentional approach.^[7]

The 1954 "Design in Scandinavia" exhibit at the Brooklyn Museum helped bring Scandinavian modern design to the U.S. Around that time, it started to mix with mid-century modern, a style that became popular in the 1950s. Mid-century modern was America’s way of moving away from older, fancy styles and was part of a bigger modern design movement.^[8]

Thomas Hines talks about how after World War II, American companies started making products that looked sleek and futuristic, inspired by space and military technology. These modern designs became a sign that the country was entering a new chapter. Promoting this style wasn’t just about the update look, but it was also a way to encourage consumers to buy to help the economy grow.^[7][9]

The city ofPalm Springs, California is noted for its many examples of mid-century modern architecture.^[10][11]

Architects include:^[12][13]

• Welton Becket: Bullock's Palm Springs (with Wurdeman) (1947) (demolished, 1996^[14])
• John Porter Clark: Welwood Murray Library (1937); Clark Residence (1939) (on the El Minador golf course); Palm Springs Women's Club (1939)
• William F. Cody: Stanley Goldberg residence;^[15] Del Marcos Motel (1947); L'Horizon Hotel, forJack Wrather andBonita Granville (1952); remodel of Thunderbird Country Club clubhouse (c. 1953) (Rancho Mirage); Tamarisk Country Club (1953) (Rancho Mirage) (now remodeled); Huddle Springs restaurant (1957); St. Theresa Parish Church (1968); Palm Springs Library (1975)
• Craig Ellwood:Max Palevsky House (1970)
• Albert Frey: Palm Springs City Hall (with Clark and Chambers) (1952–57); Palm Springs Fire Station #1 (1955);Tramway Gas Station (1963); Movie Colony Hotel; Kocher-Samson Building (1934) (with A. Lawrence Kocher);Raymond Loewy House (1946);Villa Hermosa Resort (1946); Frey House I (1953); Frey House II (1963); Carey-Pirozzi house (1956); Christian Scientist Church (1957); Alpha Beta Shopping Center (1960) (demolished)
• Victor Gruen: City National Bank (now Bank of America) (1959)^[16] (designed as an homage to theChapelle Notre Dame du Haut,Ronchamp, byLe Corbusier)
• A. Quincy Jones: Palm Springs Tennis Club (with Paul R. Williams) (1946); Town & Country Center (with Paul R. Williams) (1947–50); J.J. Robinson House (with Frederick E. Emmons) (1957); Ambassador and Mrs. Walter H. Annenberg House (with Frederick E. Emmons) (1963); Country Club Estates Condominiums (1965)
• William Krisel:^[17] Ocotillo Lodge(1957); House of Tomorrow(1962).
• John Lautner: Desert Hot Springs Motel (1947); Arthur Elrod House (1968) (interiors used in filmingJames Bond'sDiamonds Are Forever);Hope Residence (1973)
• John Black Lee: Specialized in residential houses. Lee House 1 (1952), Lee House 2 (1956) for which he won the Award of Merit from the American Institute of Architects, Day House (1965), *System House (1961), Rogers House (1957), Ravello (1960)
• Gene Leedy: The Sarasota School of Architecture, sometimes called Sarasota Modern, is a regional style of post-war architecture that emerged on Florida's Central West Coast.
• Frederick Monhoff: Palm Springs Biltmore Resort (1948) (demolished, 2003^[14])
• Richard Neutra (PosthumousAIA Gold Medal honoree): Grace Lewis Miller house (1937) (includes her Mensendlieck posture therapy studio);^[18]Kaufmann Desert House (1946);^[19]Samuel and Luella Maslon House, Tamarisk Country Club, Rancho Mirage (1962) (demolished 2003)^[14]
• William Pereira:Robinson's (1953)
• William Gray Purcell (with protégé Van Evera Bailey): Purcell House (1933) (cubist modern)
• Donald Wexler andRichard Harrison: Steel Developmental Houses,^[20] Sunny View Drive (1961). Home developer,Alexander Homes, popularized this post-and-beam architectural style in the Coachella Valley. Alexander houses and similar homes feature low-pitched roofs, wide eaves, open-beamed ceilings, and floor-to-ceiling windows.^{[21]: 66–75}
• E. Stewart Williams:Frank Sinatra House (1946) (with piano-shaped pool); Oasis commercial building (with interiors by Paul R. Williams) (1952); William and Marjorie Edris House (1954); Mari and Steward Williams House (1956); Santa Fe Federal Savings Building (1958); Coachella Valley Savings & Loan (now Washington Mutual) (1960);Palm Springs Desert Museum (1976)
• Paul Williams: Palm Springs Tennis Club (with Jones) (1946)
• Frank Lloyd Wright Jr.: Oasis Hotel (1923)
• Walter Wurdeman: Bullock's Palm Springs (with Welton Becket) (1947) (demolished 1996)^[14]

Examples of 1950s Palm Springs motel architecture include Ballantines Movie Colony (1952) – one portion is the 1935 Albert Frey San Jacinto Hotel – the Coral Sands Inn (1952), and the Orbit Inn (1957).^[22] Restoration projects have been undertaken to return many of these residences and businesses to their original condition.^[23]

In nearbyNewberry Springs, Harold James Bissner Jr designed the 1968 circular "space-age"Volcano House (1968–1969)^[24]

Brazil is the only country in the world where an entire city, and in this case the country's capital,Brasília, was built entirely in the mid-century modern style.^[25][26] The city was inaugurated in 1961, and is the third most populous city in the country, behind onlySão Paulo andRio de Janeiro. In addition to the memorable buildings by architectOscar Niemeyer, there are also works byAthos Bulcão,Marianne Peretti,João Filgueiras Lima, and landscaping byBurle Marx.^[27]

Architects include:^[28]

• Lucio Costa: major achievements include theGustavo Capanema Palace in Rio de Janeiro and the famousPacaembu Stadium in São Paulo.
• Vilanova Artigas: major achievements includeFaculty of Architecture and Urbanism, University of São Paulo andMorumbi Stadium, both in São Paulo.
• Oscar Niemeyer: major achievements includeNational Congress of Brazil,Alvorada Palace Presidential Residence,Cathedral of Brasília,Supreme Court of Brazil,Planalto Palace - Official Workplace of the President of Brazil,Itamaraty Palace - Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Brazil,Cláudio Santoro National Theater,Superior Court of Justice, all in Brasília.Ibirapuera Park inSão Paulo.Niterói Contemporary Art Museum, Manchete Building, Casa das Canoas, inRio de Janeiro.Oscar Niemeyer Museum inCuritiba.
• Lina Bo Bardi: major achievements includeSão Paulo Museum of Art and Casa de Vidro, both in São Paulo.
• Paulo Mendes da Rocha: major achievement includesSão Paulo State Art Gallery in São Paulo.

Scandinavian design had a great influence on the mid-century modernfurniture. The style is characterized by a minimalist, clean-lined approach that looks to combine functionality with beauty, well-crafted, classic, and timeless. Emphasis is put on utilizingnatural materials to improve daily life through unique, purposefuldesign, durability and reliability. The Scandinavian mid-century modern goal was to minimize, promoting quality over quantity and cozy togetherness. TheNordic style united innovation, simplicity, and elegance. Scandinavian modern designers, such asBørge Mogensen,Hans Wegner,Finn Juhl,Arne Vodder,Verner Panton, andAlvar Aalto, stood out in this movement.^[29]

In 1930, theStockholm Exhibition introduced a new type of design toScandinavia, focusing on clean shapes, simple lines, and practical use. This exhibition was led by Gregor Paulsson, and the event showcased buildings and furniture that were practical and stylish without extra decoration. This exhibition influenced many designers across Europe, and helped spread the ideas that now define mid-century modern design.^[30]

The Case Study Houses program ran from 1945 through 1966, and was an experimental initiative intended to address the post–World War II housing boom in the United States. It brought together some of the most significant mid-century modern architects, includingCharles and Ray Eames,Craig Ellwood,A. Quincy Jones,Edward Killingsworth,Pierre Koenig,Richard Neutra,Ralph Rapson,Eero Saarinen, andRaphael Soriano to design and construct efficient, affordable prototype homes. These houses served as models for modern residential living and were documented by architectural photographerJulius Shulman.^[31][32]

Scandinavian design was very influential at this time, with a style characterized by simplicity, democratic design and natural shapes. Glassware (Iittala –Finland), ceramics (Arabia – Finland), tableware (Georg Jensen – Denmark), lighting (Poul Henningsen – Denmark), and furniture (Danish modern) were some of the genres for the products created.

In the eastern United States, the American-bornRussel Wright andMary Wright, designing for Steubenville Pottery, and Hungarian-bornEva Zeisel designing forRed Wing Pottery and laterHall China created free-flowing ceramic designs that were much admired and heralded in the trend of smooth, flowing contours in dinnerware.

On the West Coast of the United States, the industrial designer and potterEdith Heath (1911–2005) founded Heath Ceramics in 1948. The company was one of the numerous California pottery manufacturers that had their heyday in post-war United States, and produced mid-Century modernceramic dish-ware.

Edith Heath's "Coupe" line remains in demand and has been in constant production since 1948, with only periodic changes to the texture and color of the glazes.^[33]

TheTamac Pottery company produced a line of mid-century modernbiomorphic dinnerware and housewares between 1946 and 1972.^[34]

Printed ephemera documenting the mid-century transformations indesign,architecture,landscape,infrastructure, and entertainment include mid-century linen post cards from the early 1930s to the late 1950s. These post cards came about through innovations pioneered through the use of offsetlithography. The cards were produced on paper with a high rag content, which gave the post card a textured look and feel. At the time this was a less expensive process.

Along with advances in printing technique, mid-century linen postcards allowed for very vibrant ink colors. The encyclopedic geographic imagery of mid-century linen post cards suggests popular middle-class attitudes aboutnature,wilderness,technology, mobility and the city during the mid-20th century.^[35]

Curt Teich in Chicago^[36] was the most prominent and largest printer and publisher of Linen Type postcards^[37] pioneeringlithography with his "Art Colortone" process.^[38]

Other large publishers includeStanley Piltz in San Francisco, who established the "Pictorial Wonderland Art Tone Series", Western Publishing and Novelty Company in Los Angeles and theTichnor Brothers in Boston.^[39] The printing of mid-century linen post cards began to give way in the late 1950s toKodachrome andEktachrome color prints.

• 
  Oscar Niemeyer'sContemporary Art Museum inNiteroi
• 
  Main Terminal atDulles Airport in Northern Virginia byEero Saarinen
• 
  Palacio da Alvorada, official residence of thePresident of Brazil byOscar Niemeyer
• 
  National Congress of Brazil byOscar Niemeyer
• 
  MIT Chapel byEero Saarinen
• 
  North Christian Church, Columbus, Indiana, US, the final work ofEero Saarinen
• 
  Stahl House byPierre Koenig
• 
  Helsinki, Finland – University of Technology – Auditorium byAlvar Aalto
• 
  Sierra Towers in West Hollywood, California byJack A. Charney
• 
  Hotel Casino de la Selva, Cuernavaca, Mexico byFélix Candela
• 
  Cal Poly Pomona College of Environmental Design byCarl Maston
• 
  The 360 at Founders Plaza in Oklahoma City
• 
  Riverplace Tower,Jacksonville, Florida byWelton Becket
• 
  St. Augustine's Episcopal Church in Gary, Indiana byEdward D. Dart
• 
  Courthouse Annex Building, (now demolished)Jacksonville, Florida byReynolds, Smith & Hills
• 
  CSX Transportation Building,Jacksonville, Florida byKBJ Architects
• 
  Del Prado Condominiums,Balboa Park, San Diego byWilliam Krisel
• 
  UCI Langson Library, Irvine Ranch, California
• 
  Bullock's Pasadena, California, 1949
• 
  Alden Dow House and Studio, Midland, Michigan byAlden B. Dow
• 
  Adventkerk,The Hague, the Netherlands, by K.L. Sijmons, 1954
• 
  State Quad, one of four identical quadrangle dormitories, at theUniversity at Albany, New York
• 
  University Motor Inn with partialbutterfly roof on theSchuylkill River in Philadelphia, 1960
• 
  Parkade Plaza in downtownSpokane, Washington

• 
  Egg chair byArne Jacobsen
• 
  Grand Prix byArne Jacobsen
• 
  Eames Lounge Chair byCharles and Ray Eames
• 
  Noguchi table byIsamu Noguchi
• 
  Diamond chair byHarry Bertoia
• 
  Comprehensive Storage Unit byGeorge Nelson

• Atomic Age
• Butterfly roof
• Case Study Houses
• Danish modern
• Dingbat
• Googie architecture
• Miami Modern architecture
• Miller House
• Modern architecture
• Modernism
• Populuxe
• SSUnited States
• United Productions of America

• Andersen, Kurt (23 February 1998)."Annals of Architecture: Desert Cool"(PDF).The New Yorker. Vol. 74, no. 2.Robert Polidori (photographs). pp. 128–137.ISSN 0028-792X. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2014-03-17. RetrievedMay 23, 2012. (Abstract: Chronicles the return to fashionability of Palm Springs, including the post-WWII architecture of John Lautner, Richard Neutra, and Albert Frey.)
• Coquelle, Aline (2006).Palm Springs Style. Assouline. p. 192.ISBN 978-2843237430.
• Dailey, Victoria (2003).LA's Early Moderns: Art, Architecture, Photography. Princeton Archit. Press. p. 136.ISBN 978-1890449162.
• Dietsch, Deborah K. (2000).Classic Modern: Midcentury Modern At Home. Simon & Schuster. p. 208.ISBN 978-0684867441.
• Greensberg, Cara (2000).Mid-Century Modern: Furniture of the 1950s. London: Thamse & Hudson.ISBN 978-0500278598.OCLC 901886281.OL 1984249W.
• Hess, Alan (2007).Forgotten Modern: California Houses 1940–1970. Weintraub, Alan (photographs). Gibbs Smith. p. 280.ISBN 978-1586858582.
• Keith, Michele (2010). "Michael Berman: ... Palm Springs; Alex Jordan: ... Palm Desert".Designers here and there: inside the city and country homes of America's top decorators. New York: Monacelli Press. p. 224.ISBN 978-1580932462.LCCN 2009042910.
• Dream Homes Deserts: A Showcase of the Finest Architects, Designers & Builders in Las Vegas, Palm Springs & New Mexico. Dallas, TX: Panache Partners. 2008. p. 200.ISBN 978-1933415284.
• "Desert Classic".Metropolitan Home. Hachette Filipacchi II. November–December 2003.ISSN 0273-2858.OCLC 7045895.A pair of artists revitalizes aNeutra landmark by respecting both its architecture and view.
• "A spectacular renovation in Palm Springs respects the past but pushes the midcentury feel into the future".Metropolitan Home. Des Moines, IA: Meredith Corp. March 2006.ISSN 0273-2858.OCLC 14634311.
• "Palm Springs Infusion: Splashes of color and sophistication revive a desert house".Architectural Digest. New York. February 2008.
• "Jim Jennings Emphasizing Form & Light in his Elegantly Spare Palm Springs Retreat".Architectural Digest. New York. September 2009.
• "At Home in the Desert ... a house near Palm Springs".Architectural Digest. New York. April 2010.

• Renovations and Additions to a 1940s Mid Century Modern Residence in Pasadena by architect James V. Coane & Associates (2017 archive)
• Desert Utopia: Mid-Century Architecture in Palm Springs, documentary about Mid-Century Modern in Palm Springs

• Mid-century modern
• 1940s architecture
• 1950s architecture
• 1960s architecture
• 20th-century architectural styles
• American architectural styles
• History of furniture
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• Modernism
• Modernist architecture
• Modernist architecture in the United States

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