Mickey was created as a replacement for a prior Disney character,Oswald the Lucky Rabbit. The character was originally to be named "Mortimer Mouse", until Disney's wife,Lillian, suggested "Mickey". Mickey first appeared in two 1928 shortsPlane Crazy andThe Gallopin' Gaucho (which were not picked up for distribution) before his public debut inSteamboat Willie (1928). The character went on to appear in over 130 films, mostly shorts as well as features such asFantasia (1940). Since 1930, Mickey has been featured extensively incomic strips (including theMickey Mouse comic strip, which ran for 45 years) and comic books (such asMickey Mouse). The character has also been featured in television series such asThe Mickey Mouse Club (1955–1996).
Inspired by suchsilent film personalities asCharlie Chaplin andDouglas Fairbanks, Mickey is traditionally portrayed as a sympatheticunderdog who gets by on pluck and ingenuity in the face of challenges bigger than himself. The character's depiction as a small mouse is personified through his diminutive stature andfalsetto voice, the latter of which was originally provided by Walt Disney. Though originally characterized as a cheekylovable rogue, Mickey was rebranded over time as anice guy, usually seen as a spirited, yet impulsivehero.
Mickey also appears in media such as video games as well as merchandising and is ameetable character at the Disney parks. He is one of the world's most recognizable and universally acclaimed fictional characters. Ten of Mickey's cartoons were nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film, one of which,Lend a Paw, won the award in1941. In 1978, Mickey became the first cartoon character to have a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.
Mickey Mouse was created as a replacement forOswald the Lucky Rabbit, an earlier cartoon character that was created by the Disney studio but owned at the time byUniversal Pictures.[3]Charles Mintz served as a middleman producer between Disney and Universal through his company, Winkler Pictures, for the series of cartoons starring Oswald. In a February 1928 meeting with Mintz to renew the Oswald contract, Disney was met by a disappointing budget cut proposal, along with Mintz's revelation that several of the most important Disney animators were coming over to his studio.[4] Among the few who stayed at the Disney studio were animatorUb Iwerks, apprentice artistLes Clark, andWilfred Jackson.[citation needed]
A new character was workshopped out of necessity and in relative secret. Various myths exist of Walt Disney's inspiration for Mickey (including some which were likelyghostwritten), such as that thestarving artist drew inspiration from a tame mouse (or pair of mice) at his desk at Laugh-O-Gram Studio inKansas City, Missouri, or that he undertook a romantic search for inspiration on the train ride home from his disappointing meeting with Mintz.[5][6] At Disney's behest, Iwerks sketched new character ideas based on various animals such as dogs and cats, but none of these appealed to Disney. A female cow and male horse were rejected, as was a male frog.[a] In 1925,Hugh Harman drew some sketches of mice around a photograph of Walt Disney, reputedly based on Disney's own designs (similar to those he included on family birthday cards).[8] These inspired Iwerks to create a new mouse character for Disney.[7]
"Mortimer Mouse" had been Disney's original name for the character before his wife,Lillian, convinced him to change it.[9][10][b] It has been speculated that Disney saw the name on a similarly namedPerformo toy.[11] Additionally, actorMickey Rooney claimed that during his time performing as the title character of theMickey McGuire film series (1927–1934), he met Walt Disney at theWarner Bros. studio, inspiring Disney to name the character after him;[12] however, Disney Studios was located on Hyperion Avenue at the time, with Disney conducting no business at Warner Bros.[13][14][c]
The first feature-length movie with dialogue sequences,The Jazz Singer starringAl Jolson, was released on October 6, 1927. Several additional talkies followed, and movie theaters began installing the necessary equipment. Walt Disney reputedly discussed making sound cartoons in late May 1928.[16] After composerCarl W. Stalling initially voiced Mickey for the 1929 talkie shortsThe Karnival Kid[17] andWild Waves, Disney himself provided the often-shyfalsetto voice—a large part of the character's onscreen persona.[18]
Design
Walt Disney with a cutout of Mickey as he was drawn by the end of 1928
Mickey's original design strongly resembled Oswald the Rabbit, save for the ears, nose, and tail.[19][20][21] Ub Iwerks designed Mickey's body out of circles (distinctly, the ears) to make the character easy to animate.[22][d]Upon his creation, Mickey's features shared similarities to a number of his cartoon predecessors with large eyes and mouth on a black body[e] (e.g. Oswald andFelix the Cat). From early 1929,[25] Mickey also wore white gloves[f] (similar to those appearing on later characters, e.g.Bosko andBimbo).[g] Several sources state that this scheme evolved fromblackface caricatures used inminstrel shows.[29][30][h][i]Additionally, Mickey's original black hands could not be seen if they passed in front of his torso. This limitation encouraged animators to base their poses onsilhouette, much in the manner ofCharlie Chaplin films.[33][34][j]
Minnie Mouse was designed similarly to Mickey, with only superficial details being different.[37] In the 1930s, animatorFred Moore tried giving Mickey's body more of a pear shape to increase his acting range; Walt Disney liked this adaptation and declared, "that's the way I want Mickey to be drawn from now on."[22][k] Moore maintained that the character should always be drawn from a pleasing angle, ears included, as opposed to depicting Mickey as a realistic 3D character.[38]
Mickey's eyes were originally large and white with black outlines, with the tops able to deform like eyebrows; thepupil was circular (with a triangle cut out in posterclose-ups to simulate reflected light).[39] Starting withSteamboat Willie, the bottom portion of the black outlines was removed, often making the pupil placement look strange. The pupils began to be treated as stationary, dotlike eyes, requiring the entire head to be moved to make Mickey look around.[24] During the production ofFantasia in the late 1930s, Fred Moore redesigned Mickey with small white pupilled eyes,[40][41][l] with the redefined facial area being given alight skin color.[39][m] Distinct, lined eyebrows were later added and are currently used occasionally.[43]
Besides Mickey's gloves and shoes, he typically wears only a pair of shorts with two large buttons in the front. Before Mickey was seen regularly in color animation, Mickey's shorts were either red or a dull blue-green. With the advent of Mickey's color films, they were always red. When Mickey is not wearing his shorts, he is often still wearing red clothing.[n] Due to budgetary limits imposed byWorld War II, Mickey temporarily lost his tail, e.g. inThe Little Whirlwind (1941).[39][44]
Mickey was first seen in a test screening of the cartoon shortPlane Crazy, on May 15, 1928, but it failed to impress the audience and Walt could not find a distributor for it.[45] Walt went on to produce a second Mickey short,The Gallopin' Gaucho, which was also not released for lack of a distributor.
Steamboat Willie was first released on November 18, 1928, in New York.[46][47] It wasco-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. Iwerks again served as the head animator,[48] assisted byLes Clark,[49] Johnny Cannon, Wilfred Jackson andDick Lundy.[citation needed] This short was a nod toBuster Keaton'sSteamboat Bill, Jr.,[48][50] released earlier that year. Although it was the third Mickey cartoon produced, it was the first to find a distributor, and thus is considered by The Disney Company as Mickey's debut. It also featured some design refinements, and included the use of a bouncing ball on the film print to allow conductors and musicians to match the tempo of their music with the film.[47][48]
The cartoon was not the first cartoon to feature a soundtrack connected to the action.Fleischer Studios, headed by brothersDave andMax Fleischer, had already released a number of sound cartoons using theDeForest system in the mid-1920s. However, these cartoons did not keep the sound synchronized throughout the film. ForWillie, Disney had the sound recorded with aclick track that kept the musicians on the beat. This precise timing is apparent during the "Turkey in the Straw" sequence when Mickey's actions exactly match the accompanying instruments. Animation historians have long debated who had served as the composer for the film's original music. This role has been variously attributed to Wilfred Jackson, Carl Stalling and Bert Lewis, but identification remains uncertain. Walt Disney himself was voice actor for both Mickey and Minnie and would remain the source of Mickey's voice through 1946 for theatrical cartoons.Jimmy MacDonald took over the role in 1946, but Walt provided Mickey's voice again from 1955 to 1959 forThe Mickey Mouse Club television series onABC.[citation needed]
Audiences at the time ofSteamboat Willie's release were reportedly impressed by the use of sound for comedic purposes.Sound films or "talkies" were still considered innovative. Most other cartoon studios were still producing silent products and so were unable to effectively act as competition to Disney. As a result, Mickey would soon become the most prominent animated character of the time. Walt Disney soon worked on adding sound to bothPlane Crazy andThe Gallopin' Gaucho (which had originally been silent releases) and their new release added to Mickey's success and popularity. A fourth Mickey short,The Barn Dance, was also put into production; however, Mickey does not actually speak untilThe Karnival Kid (1929). AfterSteamboat Willie was released, Mickey became a close competitor to Felix the Cat, and his popularity would grow as he was continuously featured in sound cartoons. By 1929, Felix would lose popularity among theater audiences, and Pat Sullivan decided to produce all future Felix cartoons in sound as a result.[51] Audiences did not respond well to Felix's transition to sound and by 1930, Felix had faded from the screen.[52]
In Mickey's early films he was often characterized not as a hero, but as an ineffective young suitor to Minnie Mouse.The Barn Dance (March 14, 1929) is the first time in which Mickey is turned down by Minnie in favor ofPete.The Opry House (March 28, 1929) was the first time in which Mickey wore his white gloves. Mickey wears them in almost all of his subsequent appearances and many other characters followed suit. The three lines on the back of Mickey's gloves represent darts in the gloves' fabric extending from between the digits of the hand, typical of glove design of the era.
When the Cat's Away (April 18, 1929), essentially a remake of theAlice Comedy, "Alice Rattled by Rats", was an unusual appearance for Mickey. Although Mickey and Minnie still maintained their anthropomorphic characteristics, they were depicted as the size of regular mice and living with a community of many other mice as pests in a home. Mickey and Minnie would later appear the size of regular humans in their own setting. In appearances with real humans, Mickey has been shown to be about two to three feet high.[53] The next Mickey short was also unusual.The Barnyard Battle (April 25, 1929) was the only film to depict Mickey as a soldier and also the first to place him in combat.The Karnival Kid (1929) was the first time Mickey spoke. Before this he had only whistled, laughed, and grunted. His first words were "Hot dogs! Hot dogs!" said while trying to sell hot dogs at a carnival.[54]Mickey's Follies (1929) introduced the song "Minnie's Yoo-Hoo" which would become the theme song forMickey Mouse films until 1935. The same song sequence was also later reused with different background animation as its own special short shown only at the commencement of 1930s theater-based Mickey Mouse Clubs.[55][56] Mickey's dogPluto first appeared as Mickey's pet inThe Moose Hunt (1931) after previously appearing as Minnie's dog "Rover" inThe Picnic (1930).
Wild Waves was the last Mickey Mouse cartoon to be animated byUb Iwerks.[57] Iwerks left to start his own studio, bankrolled by Disney's then-distributorPat Powers. Powers and Disney had a falling out over money due Disney from the distribution deal. It was in response to losing the right to distribute Disney's cartoons that Powers made the deal with Iwerks, who had long harbored a desire to head his own studio. The departure is considered a turning point in Mickey's career, as well as that of Walt Disney. Walt lost the man who served as his closest colleague and confidant since 1919. Mickey lost the man responsible for his original design and for the direction or animation of several of the shorts released till this point. Advertising for the early Mickey Mouse cartoons credited them as "A Walt Disney Comic, drawn by Ub Iwerks". Later Disney Company reissues of the early cartoons tend to credit Walt Disney alone.Wild Waves was also composerCarl Stalling's last film with theWalt Disney Studio. Stalling joined Iwerks at his new studio.[58]
Disney and his remaining staff continued the production of the Mickey series, and he was able to eventually find a number of animators to replace Iwerks. As theGreat Depression progressed and Felix the Cat faded from the movie screen, Mickey's popularity would rise, and by 1932 The Mickey Mouse Club would have one million members.[59] At the5th Academy Awards in 1932, Mickey received his first Academy Award nomination, received forMickey's Orphans (1931). Walt Disney also received an honorary Academy Award for the creation of Mickey Mouse. Despite being eclipsed by theSilly Symphony short theThree Little Pigs in 1933, Mickey still maintained great popularity among theater audiences too, until 1935, when polls showed thatPopeye was more popular than Mickey.[60][61][62] By 1934, Mickey merchandise had earned $600,000 a year.[63] In 1935, Disney began to phase out the Mickey Mouse Clubs, due to administration problems.[64]
About this time, story artists at Disney were finding it increasingly difficult to write material for Mickey. As he had developed into arole model for children, they were limited in the types of gags they could present. This led to Mickey taking more of a secondary role in some of his next films, allowing for more emphasis on other characters. InOrphan's Benefit (1934), Mickey first appeared withDonald Duck who had been introduced earlier that year in theSilly Symphony series. The tempestuous duck would provide Disney with seemingly endless story ideas and would remain a recurring character in Mickey's cartoons.
Mickey first appeared animated in color inParade of the Award Nominees in 1932; however, the film strip was created for the5th Academy Awards ceremony and was not released to the public. Mickey's official first color film came in 1935 withThe Band Concert. TheTechnicolor film process was used in the film production. Here Mickey conducted theWilliam Tell Overture, but the band is swept up by a tornado. It is said that conductorArturo Toscanini so loved this short that, upon first seeing it, he asked the projectionist to run it again. In 1994,The Band Concert was voted the third-greatest cartoon of all time in a poll of animation professionals. By colorizing and partially redesigning Mickey, Walt put Mickey back on top once again. Mickey reach new heights of popularity.[65] Also in 1935, Walt would receive a special award from theLeague of Nations for creating Mickey.
The second half of the 1930s saw the characterGoofy reintroduced as a series regular. Together, Mickey, Donald Duck, and Goofy would go on several adventures together. Several of the films by the comic trio are some of Mickey's most critically acclaimed films, includingMickey's Fire Brigade (1935),Moose Hunters (1937),Clock Cleaners (1937),Lonesome Ghosts (1937),Boat Builders (1938), andMickey's Trailer (1938). Also during this era, Mickey was the star inBrave Little Tailor (1938), an adaptation ofThe Valiant Little Tailor, which was nominated for an Academy Award.
In 1939, Mickey appeared inMickey's Surprise Party, along with Minnie, with a new design, which gave him smaller, more detailed eyes.[40][41] In 1940, Mickey appeared in his first feature-length film,Fantasia, which utilized his redesign.[40] His screen role asThe Sorcerer's Apprentice, set to thesymphonic poem of the same name byPaul Dukas, is perhaps the most famous segment of the film and one of Mickey's most iconic roles. Theapprentice (Mickey), not willing to do his chores, puts on the sorcerer's magic hat after the sorcerer goes to bed and casts a spell on a broom, which causes the broom to come to life and perform the most tiring chore—filling up a deep well using two buckets of water. When the well eventually overflows, Mickey finds himself unable to control the broom, leading to a near-flood. After the segment ends, Mickey is seen in silhouette shaking hands with conductorLeopold Stokowski. Mickey has often been pictured in the red robe and blue sorcerer's hat in merchandising. It was also featured into the climax ofFantasmic!, an attraction at the Disney theme parks.
After 1940, Mickey's popularity declined until his 1955 re-emergence as a daily children's television personality.[66] Despite this, the character continued to appear regularly in animated shorts until 1943 (winning his only competitive Academy Award—with canine companion Pluto—for the short subjectLend a Paw) and again from 1946 to 1952. In these later cartoons, Mickey was often just a supporting character in his own shorts. Pluto was instead used as the main character.
The last regular installment of theMickey Mouse film series came in 1953 withThe Simple Things in which Mickey and Pluto go fishing and are pestered by a flock ofseagulls.
Throughout the decades, Mickey Mouse competed with Warner Bros.'Bugs Bunny for animated popularity. But in 1988, the two rivals finally shared screen time in theRobert ZemeckisTouchstone Pictures/Amblin Entertainment filmWho Framed Roger Rabbit. Disney and Warner signed an agreement stating that each character had the same amount of screen time in the scene.
Similar to his animated inclusion into a live-action film inRoger Rabbit, Mickey made a featured cameo appearance in the 1990 television specialThe Muppets at Walt Disney World where he metKermit the Frog. The two are established in the story as having been old friends, although they have not made any other appearance together outside of this.
In 2013,Disney Channel started airing new 3-minuteMickey Mouse shorts, with animatorPaul Rudish at the helm, incorporating elements of Mickey's late twenties-early thirties look with a contemporary twist.[68] On November 10, 2020, the series was revived asThe Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse and premiered onDisney+.[69] Furthermore, The creative team behind the2017DuckTales reboot had hoped to have Mickey Mouse in the series, but this idea was rejected by Disney executives.[70] However, a watermelon bearing Mickey's physical likeness appears in one episode as a ventriloquist dummy companion to Donald Duck.[71]
In August 2018, ABC television announced a two-hour prime time special,Mickey's 90th Spectacular, in honor of Mickey's 90th birthday. The program featured never-before-seen short videos and several other celebrities who wanted to share their memories about Mickey Mouse and performed some of the Disney songs to impress Mickey. The show took place at theShrine Auditorium in Los Angeles and was produced and directed byDon Mischer on November 4, 2018.[72][73] On November 18, 2018, a 90th anniversary event for the character was celebrated around the world.[74] In December 2019, both Mickey and Minnie served as special co-hosts ofWheel of Fortune for two weeks whileVanna White served as the main host duringPat Sajak's absence.[75]
Mickey is the subject of the 2022 documentary filmMickey: The Story of a Mouse, directed by Jeff Malmberg. Premiering at theSouth by Southwest film festival prior to its premiere on the Disney+ streaming service, the documentary examines the history and cultural impact of Mickey Mouse. The feature is accompanied by an original, hand-drawn animated short film starring Mickey titledMickey in a Minute.[76]
Mickey appeared in Walt Disney Animation Studios' centennial short film,Once Upon a Studio, in which he corrals the characters of Disney's animated features to take a group picture.[77]
Mickey and Horace Horsecollar from theMickey Mouse daily strip; created byFloyd Gottfredson and published December 1932
Mickey first appeared in comics after he had appeared in 15 commercially successful animated shorts and was easily recognized by the public. Walt Disney was approached byKing Features Syndicate with the offer to license Mickey and hissupporting characters for use in a comic strip. Disney accepted andMickey Mouse made its first appearance on January 13, 1930.[78] The comical plot was credited to Disney himself, art to Ub Iwerks and inking toWin Smith. The first week or so of the strip featured a loose adaptation ofPlane Crazy. Minnie soon became the first addition to the cast. The strips first released between January 13, 1930, and March 31, 1930, have been occasionally reprinted in comic book form under the collective titleLost on a Desert Island. Animation historian Jim Korkis notes, "After the eighteenth strip, Iwerks left and his inker, Win Smith, continued drawing the gag-a-day format."[79]
In early 1930, after Iwerks' departure, Disney was at first content to continue scripting the Mickey Mouse comic strip, assigning the art to Win Smith. However, Disney's focus had always been in animation and Smith was soon assigned with the scripting as well. Smith was apparently discontent at the prospect of having to script, draw, and ink a series by himself as evidenced by his sudden resignation.
Disney then searched for a replacement among the remaining staff of the Studio. He selectedFloyd Gottfredson, a recently hired employee. At the time Gottfredson was reportedly eager to work in animation and somewhat reluctant to accept his new assignment. Disney had to assure him the assignment was only temporary and that he would eventually return to animation. Gottfredson accepted and ended up holding this "temporary" assignment from May 5, 1930, to November 15, 1975.
Walt Disney's last script for the strip appeared May 17, 1930.[79] Gottfredson's first task was to finish the storyline Disney had started on April 1, 1930. The storyline was completed on September 20, 1930, and later reprinted in comic book form asMickey Mouse in Death Valley. This early adventure expanded the cast of the strip which to this point only included Mickey and Minnie. Among the characters who had their first comic strip appearances in this story were Clarabelle Cow, Horace Horsecollar, andBlack Pete as well as the debuts of corrupted lawyerSylvester Shyster and Minnie's uncleMortimer Mouse. The Death Valley narrative was followed byMr. Slicker and the Egg Robbers, first printed between September 22 and December 26, 1930, which introducedMarcus Mouse and his wife as Minnie's parents.
Starting with these two early comic strip stories, Mickey's versions in animation and comics are considered to have diverged from each other. While Disney and hiscartoon shorts would continue to focus on comedy, the comic strip effectively combined comedy and adventure. This adventurous version of Mickey would continue to appear in comic strips and later comic books throughout the 20th and into the 21st century.
Floyd Gottfredson left his mark with stories such asMickey Mouse Joins the Foreign Legion (1936) andThe Gleam (1942). He also created thePhantom Blot,Eega Beeva, Morty and Ferdie, Captain Churchmouse, and Butch. Besides Gottfredson artists for the strip over the years included Roman Arambula, Rick Hoover,Manuel Gonzales,Carson Van Osten, Jim Engel, Bill Wright, Ted Thwailes andDaan Jippes; writers includedTed Osborne,Merrill De Maris,Bill Walsh, Dick Shaw,Roy Williams, Del Connell, andFloyd Norman.
The next artist to leave his mark on the character wasPaul Murry inDell Comics. His first Mickey tale appeared in 1950 but Mickey did not become a specialty until Murry's first serial forWalt Disney's Comics and Stories in 1953 ("The Last Resort"). In the same period,Romano Scarpa in Italy for the magazineTopolino began to revitalize Mickey in stories that brought back thePhantom Blot andEega Beeva along with new creations such as the Atomo Bleep-Bleep. While the stories atWestern Publishing during theSilver Age emphasized Mickey as a detective in the style ofSherlock Holmes, in the modern era several editors and creators have consciously undertaken to depict a more vigorous Mickey in the mold of the classic Gottfredson adventures. This renaissance has been spearheaded byByron Erickson,David Gerstein,Noel Van Horn,Michael T. Gilbert andCésar Ferioli.
In Europe, Mickey Mouse became the main attraction of a number of comics magazines, the most famous beingTopolino in Italy from 1932 onward,Le Journal de Mickey in France from 1934 onward,Don Miki in Spain and the GreekMiky Maous.
In 2006, he appeared in the Italian fantasy comic sagaWizards of Mickey.
In 1958, Mickey Mouse was introduced to the Arab world through another comic book called "Sameer". He became very popular in Egypt and got a comic book with his name. Mickey's comics in Egypt are licensed by Disney and were published since 1959 by "Dar Al-Hilal" and they were successful, however Dar Al-Hilal stopped the publication in 2003 because of problems with Disney. The comics were re-released by "Nahdat Masr" in 2004 and the first issues were sold out in less than 8 hours.[80]
Portrayal
Mickey is traditionally characterized as a sympatheticunderdog who gets by on pluck and ingenuity in the face of challenges much bigger than himself.[81] As a mouse, an inherently vulnerable creature, Mickey is often depicted as having minimal resources and attributes at his disposal. Consequently, he must rely on sheer wit to overcome obstacles. The character is frequently pitted against larger-than-life villains to accentuate this idea; namely the hulking cat Pegleg Pete, and numerous one-shot antagonists such as the giants ofGiantland (1933) andBrave Little Tailor (1938), theking of cards inThru the Mirror (1936) and Mortimer Mouse inMickey's Rival (1936). These adversaries were decidedly portrayed as overbearing figures of authority, thusly painting Mickey as a rebellious hero. When not facing an opponent, Mickey is oft placed in situations where his pursuits of grandeur or simple accomplishment lead to disastrous results, typically at the hands of his own impulsivity, as was the case inThe Sorcerer's Apprentice (1940) among others. Mickey is not portrayed as a hero in the traditional sense, instead acting as a subversion of the stock archetype. He often fumbles his way through adventures; his small size and misplaced optimism serving as his dominating flaws. His manner of problem-solving is generally unorthodox to comedic effect; inYe Olden Days (1933), Mickey'sjousting horse was an infantile mule. InShanghaied (1934), Mickey battled with abroadbill in place of a sword. The underdog nature of Mickey's character has been interpreted by historians as a symbolic reflection of Walt Disney's early struggles as a farm boy breaking into the imposing Hollywood industry in the 1920s.[82] It has also been perceived as an allegory for theGreat Depression in the United States, with Mickey's unrelenting optimism symbolizing the "American endurance to survive" in the face of economic woes.[83]
Charlie Chaplin, known by audiences of the time for his role as the "Little Tramp", was identified by Disney as a source of inspiration for the Mickey character. Disney himself was a noted admirer of Chaplin's work, ascribing his development as a storyteller to the actor. InThe American Magazine for March 1931, Disney explained, "I think we were rather indebted to Charlie Chaplin for the idea [of Mickey Mouse]. We wanted something appealing and we thought of a tiny bit of a mouse that would have something of the wistfulness of Chaplin... a little fellow trying to do the best he could." American journalistAlva Johnston noted the similarities between the two figures, stating, "Chaplin was a kind of godfather to Mickey Mouse. It is now and always has been the aim of Disney to graft the psychology of Chaplin upon Mickey. The two universal characters have something in common in their approach to their problems. They have the same blend of hero and coward, nitwit and genius, mug and gentleman."[84]
Besides Chaplin, other notable figures of the silent era have been credited to Mickey's characterization. Chief among them wasDouglas Fairbanks, whose swashbuckling screen adventures would inspire Mickey's animatedepics. Ub Iwerks wrote in 1970, "He was the super-hero of his day, always winning, gallant and swashbuckling. Mickey's action was in that vein. He was never intended to be a sissy, he was always an adventurous character. I thought of him in that respect, and I had him do naturally the sort of thing Doug Fairbanks would do."[85] Disney was also noted to have been influenced by Fairbanks, along with other screen personalities includingHarold Lloyd andFred Astaire.[84]
An adaptive character, Mickey's personality lends itself to function within a multitude of situations, while retaining core elements of its design. He is not bound to a particular formula or motif, and as such, has been portrayed in a variety of settings and occupational roles. His film series, meanwhile, spans numerous genres besides the traditionalmusical comedy;The Mad Doctor (1933) andRunaway Brain (1995) parody the horror genre, whereas stories such asMickey's Good Deed (1932) andThe Prince and the Pauper (1990) are largely dramatic works. This versatility is said to have attributed to Mickey's popularity with audiences. As expressed by writer Chelsea Tatham, "From his beginnings, Mickey was able to appeal to a wide audience. He catered to neither the 'highbrow' nor the 'hick,' but the ordinary intelligent picturegoer."[83]
There are a number of catchphrases and colloquialisms associated with the character. Mickey's first spoken words, "Hot dog!" fromThe Karnival Kid (1929), has endured as a recurring phrase for the character, made especially recognizable to modern audiences for its extensive use in the preschool television programMickey Mouse Clubhouse.[86] Mickey's signature closing line, "See ya real soon!", is derived from the "Mickey Mouse March" reprise from the original 1955 run ofThe Mickey Mouse Club ("M-I-C; see you real soon!").[86]
Voice actors
Between 1929 and 1930, studio staff members would provide Mickey's dialogue and vocal effects for some cartoons.[87] Composer Carl W. Stalling provided lines for Mickey in the 1929 shortsThe Karnival Kid andWild Waves and performed his singing voice inMickey's Follies. From this point on, Mickey was voiced by Walt Disney himself, being a job in which he appeared to take great personal pride.[88][89][90] Helen Lynd filled in for Disney on one occasion in 1930.[87]
Billy Bletcher andPinto Colvig provided Mickey's mask voice and screams inMickey's Man Friday.[90]J. Donald Wilson and Joe Twerp provided the voice in some 1938 broadcasts ofThe Mickey Mouse Theater of the Air,[91] and Ford Banes voiced Mickey briefly inTugboat Mickey,Pluto's Dream House,The Little Whirlwind,A Gentleman's Gentleman,Canine Caddy, andMickey and the Seal,[90] although Disney remained Mickey's official voice during this period. However, by 1946, Disney was becoming too busy with running the studio to do regular voice work which meant he could not do Mickey's voice on a regular basis anymore. It is also speculated that hiscigarette habit had damaged his voice over the years.[92] After recording theMickey and the Beanstalk section ofFun and Fancy Free, Mickey's voice was handed over to veteran Disney musician and actorJimmy MacDonald.[87] Walt would reprise Mickey's voice occasionally until his passing in 1966, such as in the introductions to the original 1955–1959 run ofThe Mickey Mouse Club TV series, the "Fourth Anniversary Show" episode of theWalt Disney's Disneyland TV series that aired on September 11, 1957, and theDisneyland USA at Radio City Music Hall show from 1962.[93]
MacDonald voiced Mickey in most of the remaining theatrical shorts and for various television and publicity projects up until his retirement in 1976.[94] However, other actors would occasionally play the role during this era.Clarence Nash, the voice of Donald Duck, provided Mickey's voice in four theatrical shorts,Plutopia,R'coon Dawg,Pluto's Party, andPluto's Christmas Tree.[95][90]Stan Freberg voiced Mickey in the Freberg-produced recordMickey Mouse's Birthday Party.[96]Alan Young voiced Mickey in the Disneyland record albumAn Adaptation of Dickens' Christmas Carol, Performed by The Walt Disney Players in 1974.[97][98][99]
The 1983 short filmMickey's Christmas Carol marked the theatrical debut ofWayne Allwine as Mickey Mouse, who was the official voice of Mickey from 1977 until his death in 2009,[100] although MacDonald returned to voice Mickey for an appearance at the50th Academy Awards in 1978.[101] Allwine once recounted something MacDonald had told him about voicing Mickey: "The main piece of advice that Jim gave me about Mickey helped me keep things in perspective. He said, 'Just remember kid, you're only filling in for the boss.' And that's the way he treated doing Mickey for years and years. From Walt, and now from Jimmy."[102] In 1991, Allwine marriedRussi Taylor, the voice ofMinnie Mouse from 1986 until her death in 2019.
Peter Renaday voiced Mickey in many 1970s and 1980s Disney records and albums, such asYankee Doodle Mickey,Mickey Mouse Splashdance, and several Disney Read-Along titles.[103][104][105] He also provided his voice forThe Talking Mickey Mouse toy in 1986.[106][107][105]Jack Wagner voiced Mickey and other Disney characters in the 1980s, primarily for live entertainment offerings in the parks,Disney on Ice shows, and live-action clips for television.[108][109] Les Perkins did the voice of Mickey in two TV specials, "Down and Out with Donald Duck" and "DTV Valentine", in the mid-1980s.Quinton Flynn briefly filled in for Allwine as the voice of Mickey in a few episodes of the first season ofMickey Mouse Works whenever Allwine was unavailable to record.[110]
Bret Iwan, a formerHallmark greeting card artist, has been the official voice of Mickey since 2009. Iwan was originally cast as an understudy for Allwine due to the latter's declining health, but Allwine died before Iwan could get a chance to meet him and Iwan became the new official voice of the character at the time. Iwan's early recordings in 2009 included work for theDisney Cruise Line, Mickey toys, the Disney theme parks and theDisney on Ice: Celebrations! ice show.[111] He directly replaced Allwine as Mickey for theKingdom Hearts video game series and the TV seriesMickey Mouse Clubhouse. His first video game voice-over of Mickey Mouse can be heard inKingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep. Iwan also became the first voice actor to portray Mickey during Disney's rebranding of the character, providing the vocal effects of Mickey inEpic Mickey as well as his voice lines inEpic Mickey 2: The Power of Two and the remake ofCastle of Illusion. An openly gay man, Iwan is the character's firstLGBT+ performer.[citation needed]
Since his early years, Mickey Mouse has been licensed by Disney to appear on many different kinds of merchandise. Mickey was produced as plush toys and figurines, and Mickey's image has graced almost everything from T-shirts to lunchboxes. Largely responsible for early Disney merchandising wasKay Kamen, Disney's head of merchandise and licensing from 1932 until his death in 1949, who was called a "stickler for quality". Kamen was recognized by the Walt Disney Company as having a significant part in Mickey's rise to stardom and was named aDisney Legend in 1998.[118] At the time of his 80th-anniversary celebration in 2008,Time declared Mickey Mouse one of the world's most recognized characters, even when compared againstSanta Claus.[119] Disney officials have stated that 98% of children aged 3–11 around the world are at least aware of the character.[119] Disney expected theMickey Mouse & Friends brand to make $9 billion in retail sales in 2011.[120][121]
As the official Walt Disney mascot, Mickey has played a central role in theDisney parks since the opening ofDisneyland in 1955. As with other characters, Mickey is often portrayed by a non-speaking costumed actor. In this form, he has participated in ceremonies and countless parades, and poses for photographs with guests. As of the presidency ofBarack Obama (who jokingly referred to him as "a world leader who has bigger ears than me")[122] Mickey has met every U.S. president sinceHarry Truman, with the exception ofLyndon B. Johnson.[21]
Mickey also features in several specific attractions at the Disney parks.Mickey's Toontown (Disneyland andTokyo Disneyland) is a themed land which is a recreation of Mickey's neighborhood. Buildings are built in a cartoon style and guests can visitMickey or Minnie's houses, Donald Duck's boat, orGoofy's garage. This is a common place to meet the characters.[123]
In addition to Mickey's overt presence in the parks, numerous images of him are also subtly included in sometimes unexpected places. This phenomenon is known as "Hidden Mickeys", involving hidden images in Disney films, theme parks, and merchandise.[125]
Mickey was famously featured on wristwatches and alarm clocks, typically utilizing his hands as the actual hands on the face of the clock. The first Mickey Mouse watches were manufactured in 1933 by theIngersoll Watch Company. The seconds were indicated by a turning disk below Mickey. The first Mickey watch was sold at theCentury of Progress in Chicago, 1933 for $3.75 (equivalent to $91 in 2024). Mickey Mouse watches have been sold by other companies and designers throughout the years, includingTimex, Elgin, Helbros, Bradley, Lorus, andGérald Genta.[129] The fictional characterRobert Langdon from Dan Brown's novels was said to wear a Mickey Mouse watch as a reminder "to stay young at heart."[130]
Other products
In 1989,Milton Bradley released the electronic talking game titledMickey Says, with three modes featuring Mickey Mouse as its host. Mickey also appeared in other toys and games, including theWorlds of Wonder releasedThe Talking Mickey Mouse.
Fisher-Price has produced a line of talking animatronic Mickey dolls including "Dance Star Mickey" (2010)[131] and "Rock Star Mickey" (2011).[132]
In total, approximately 40% of Disney's revenues for consumer products are derived from Mickey Mouse merchandise, with revenues peaking in 1997.[119]
Social impact
A display in Asia highlighting the iconic white gloveThe silhouette of Mickey Mouse's head has become an iconic image.
Use in protest votes
In the United States,protest votes are often made to indicate dissatisfaction with the slate of candidates presented on a particular ballot or to highlight the inadequacies of a particular voting procedure. Since most states' electoral systems do not provide for blank balloting or a choice of "None of the Above", most protest votes take the form of a clearly non-serious candidate's name entered as awrite-in vote. Mickey Mouse is often selected for this purpose.[133][134] As an election supervisor in Georgia observed, "If Mickey Mouse doesn't get votes in our election, it's a bad election."[135] The earliest known mention of Mickey Mouse as a write-in candidate dates back to the1932 New York City mayoral elections.[136]
"Mickey Mouse" is a slang expression meaning small-time, amateurish or trivial. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it also means poor quality or counterfeit.[139] In Poland the phrase "mały Miki", which translates to "small Mickey", means something very simple and trivial – usually used in the comparison between two things.[140] However, in parts of Australia it can mean excellent or very good (rhyming slang for "grouse").[141] Examples of the negative usages include the following:
From 1942 to 1945, during theJapanese occupation of the Philippines in World War II, the occupying Japanese government issued anew fiat currency which drastically decreased in value towards the war. As a result ofhyperinflation, Filipinos at the time would refer to the currency in scorn as "Mickey Mouse money".[142]
InThe Godfather Part II,Fredo's justification of betraying Michael is that his orders in the family usually were "Send Fredo off to do this, send Fredo off to do that! Let Fredo take care of some Mickey Mouse nightclub somewhere!" as opposed to more meaningful tasks.
In an early episode of the 1978–82 sitcomMork & Mindy, Mork stated thatPluto was "a Mickey Mouse planet", referring to the futuredwarf planet having the same name as Mickey's pet dog Pluto.
On November 19, 1983, just after anice hockey game in whichWayne Gretzky'sEdmonton Oilers beat theNew Jersey Devils 13–4, Gretzky was quoted as saying to a reporter, "Well, it's time they got their act together, they're ruining the whole league. They had better stop running a Mickey Mouse organization and put somebody on the ice". Reacting to Gretzky's comment, Devils fans wore Mickey Mouse apparel when the Oilers returned to New Jersey on January 15, 1984, despite a 5–4 Devils loss.[143]
In the 1996 Warner Bros. filmSpace Jam, Bugs Bunny derogatorily comments onDaffy Duck's idea for the name of their basketball team, asking: "What kind of Mickey Mouse organization would name a team 'The Ducks?'" (This also referenced theMighty Ducks of Anaheim, anNHL team that was then owned by Disney, as well as the Disney-madeThe Mighty Ducks movie franchise. This was referencing the Disney/Warner Brothers rivalry.)
In schools a "Mickey Mouse course", "Mickey Mouse major", or "Mickey Mouse degree" is a class, college major, or degree where very little effort is necessary to attain a good grade (especially an A) or one where the subject matter of such a class is not of any importance in the labor market.[144]
In the beginning of the 1980s, then-British Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher once called theEuropean Parliament a "Mickey Mouse parliament", meaning a discussion club without influence.[145]
Additionally, the term "Mickey Mousing" refers to the exact synching of a film score to each action depicted onscreen, in reference to the early cartoons that used this technique.[146] Although not inherently a pejorative term, the technique has long fallen out of fashion,[147] and the term has taken on a secondary meaning indicating material interpreted as being too simplistic for itstarget audience.[148]
Mickey Mouse's global fame has made him both a symbol ofthe Walt Disney Company and of the United States itself. For this reason, Mickey has been used frequently inanti-establishment oranti-American satire, such as the infamous underground cartoonMickey Mouse in Vietnam (1969) and the Palestinian children's propaganda seriesTomorrow's Pioneers where a Mickey Mouse-esque character named Farfour is used to promote Islamic extremism. There have been numerousparodies of Mickey Mouse, such as the two-page parody"Mickey Rodent" byWill Elder (published inMad #19, 1955) in which the mouse walks around unshaven and jails Donald Duck out of jealousy over the duck's larger popularity.[149] InThe Simpsons Movie,Bart Simpson puts a black bra on his head to mimic Mickey Mouse and says: "I'm the mascot of anevil corporation!"[150]The Simpsons would later become Disney property as its distributor Fox was acquired by Disney. In theComedy Central seriesSouth Park, Mickey (voiced byTrey Parker) serves as a recurring antagonist, depicted as the sadistic, greedy, and foul-mouthed boss of the Walt Disney Company. He also appears briefly with Donald Duck in the comicSqueak the Mouse by Italian cartoonistMassimo Mattioli.
Mickey Mouse has also been particularly commented upon in the context offascism andantisemitism inNazi Germany. A pro-Nazi newspaper in the mid-1930s denounced Disney's use of "the greatest bacteria carrier in the animal kingdom" as evidence of the "Jewish brutalization of the people".[151] ArtistHorst Rosenthal created a comic book,Mickey au Camp de Gurs (Mickey Mouse in the Gurs Internment Camp) while detained in theGurs internment camp, subtitled "Publié Sans Autorisation de Walt Disney" ("Published without Walt Disney's Permission");[152] Rosenthal's Mickey names Walt Disney as his father, but is sorted into the camps as a Jew after being unable to name a mother, a seeming parody of both Disney's rumoured antisemitism and of the American public's ignorance around racial divisions in Europe.[151] CartoonistArt Spiegelman adapted Nazi descriptions of Jews as rodents and vermin for his graphic novelMaus; The original three-page strip uses a young Mickey Mouse as a stand-in for Spiegelman, listening to tales of "Mauschwitz" andthe Holocaust told by his father Vladek. The full 1991 adaptation of the strip uses a comparatively direct anthropomorphization of Spiegelman, but otherwise continues to use Mickey Mouse imagery to connect contemporary America to the genocide.[151]
In the 1969 parody novelBored of the Rings, Mickey Mouse is satirized as Dickey Dragon.
Legal issues
The early design of Mickey Mouse is one of the most notable works that entered thepublic domain in 2024.The Walt Disney Company had previously lobbied for the extension of copyright length in the United States and other countries to prevent this character and others from entering the public domain, resulting in theCopyright Term Extension Act.
Although the earliest designs of Mickey Mouse entered thepublic domain in 2024, the character, like all major Disney characters, remainstrademarked by Disney. Trademarks last for as long as it continues to be used commercially by its owner. So, while people are free to use early designs of Mickey Mouse, due to him being trademarked, there are still limitations. For example, the character cannot be referred to as "Mickey Mouse" without permission, nor can the early designs be used "...in a way that misleads consumers into thinking your work is produced or sponsored by Disney."[153][154][155]
Between 1991 and 1998, theWalt Disney Company filed a trademark infringement complaint against the ParaguayanMickey brand whose logo shares similarities with Mickey Mouse.[156] Ultimately, Disney lost the case as Mickey SRL had continuously used the trademark since 1956 without prior complaint.
Due to theCopyright Term Extension Act of the United States (sometimes called the "Mickey Mouse Protection Act" because of extensive lobbying by the Disney corporation) and similar legislation within theEuropean Union and other jurisdictions wherecopyright terms have been extended, the earlySteamboat Willie version of Mickey Mouse cartoons remained under copyright until the end of 2023. The 1928 version of Mickey entered theU.S. public domain at the start of 2024,[157][158][159][160] and in 2025 the cartoons and versions of Mickey from 1929 joined them.[161]
Copyright scholars have argued that Disney's copyright on the earliest version of the character may have been invalid due to ambiguity in the copyright notice forSteamboat Willie.[162][158]
The Walt Disney Company is well known for zealously protecting its trademark on Mickey Mouse—whose likeness is synonymous and closely associated with the company. In 1989, Disney threatened legal action against three daycare centers in theOrlando, Florida region (whereWalt Disney World is a dominant employer) for having Mickey Mouse and other Disney characters painted on their walls. The characters were removed, and the newly opened rivalUniversal Studios Florida allowed the centers to use their own cartoon characters with their blessing, to build community goodwill.[163]
Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates
In 1971, a group ofunderground cartoonists calling themselves theAir Pirates, after a group of villains from early Mickey Mouse films, produced a comic calledAir Pirates Funnies. In the first issue, cartoonistDan O'Neill depicted Mickey and Minnie Mouse engaging in explicit sexual behavior and consuming drugs. As O'Neill explained, "The air pirates were...some sort of bizarre concept to steal the air, pirate the air, steal the media....Since we were cartoonists, the logical thing was Disney."[164] Rather than change the appearance or name of the character, which O'Neill felt would dilute the parody, the mouse depicted inAir Pirates Funnies looks like and is named "Mickey Mouse". Disney sued for copyright infringement, and after a series of appeals, O'Neill eventually lost and was ordered to pay Disney $1.9 million. The outcome of the case remains controversial among free-speech advocates.New York Law School professor Edward Samuels said, "The Air Pirates set parody back twenty years."[165]
Prior to 2024, there had been multiple attempts in the United States to argue that certain versions of Mickey Mouse were in fact in the public domain. In the 1980s, archivist George S. Brown attempted to recreate and sell cels from the 1933 shortThe Mad Doctor, on the theory that they were in the public domain because Disney had failed to renew the copyright as required by current law.[166] However, Disney successfully sued Brown to prevent such sale, arguing that the lapse in copyright forThe Mad Doctor did not put Mickey Mouse in the public domain because of the copyright in the earlier films.[166] Brown attempted to appeal, noting imperfections in the earlier copyright claims, but the court dismissed his argument as untimely.[166]
In 1999, Lauren Vanpelt, a law student at Arizona State University, wrote a paper making a similar argument.[166][167] Vanpelt points out that copyright law at the time required a copyright notice specify the year of the copyright and the copyright owner's name. The title cards to early Mickey Mouse filmsSteamboat Willie,Plane Crazy, andGallopin' Gaucho do not clearly identify the copyright owner, and also misidentify the copyright year. However, Vanpelt notes that copyright cards in other early films may have been done correctly, which could make Mickey Mouse "protected as a component part of the larger copyrighted films".[167]
A 2003 article by Douglas A. Hedenkamp in theVirginia Sports and Entertainment Law Journal analyzed Vanpelt's arguments, and concluded that she is likely correct.[166][168] Hedenkamp provided additional arguments, and identified some errors in Vanpelt's paper, but still found that due to imperfections in the copyright notice on the title cards, Walt Disney forfeited his copyright in Mickey Mouse. He concluded: "The forfeiture occurred at the moment of publication, and the law of that time was clear: publication without proper notice irrevocably forfeited copyright protection."[168] Disney threatened to sue Hedenkamp forslander of title, but did not follow through.[166] The claims in Vanpelt and Hedenkamp's articles have not been tested in court.[citation needed]
In a 2023 episode ofLast Week Tonight with John Oliver,John Oliver suggested that without copyright protection to stop the unauthorized use of Mickey Mouse, the Walt Disney Company would likely use trademark law to achieve the same results, potentially arguing that Mickey Mouse is so closely associated with their brand that any unauthorized use would causeconsumer confusion. Oliver then revealed thatLast Week Tonight's opening titles had been using an image fromSteamboat Willie since the start of the season and that he would begin to use his own version of Mickey Mouse as a mascot of the show. He stated:[169][170]
We are staking our claim to Mickey Mouse right now and, I know Disney's lawyers might argue that this Mickey is closely associated with their brand, although they should know that he's pretty associated with our brand now too.
On January 1, 2024, the copyrights of the first three animated Mickey Mouse cartoons and their portrayal of Mickey Mouse expired in the United States, and they entered thepublic domain. They are the silent versions of the cartoonsPlane Crazy andThe Gallopin' Gaucho, as well as the sound cartoonSteamboat Willie.[o] Newer versions of Mickey Mouse remain copyright-protected.[171]
Quinton Hoover, aYouTube user who uploaded a copy ofSteamboat Willie after its U.S. copyright expired on January 1, 2024, noted that three attempts to upload the short to the service triggered copyright claims from Disney, including one that claimed a copyright on the short's soundtrack. Users ofTwitch noted similar behavior in that attempts to streamSteamboat Willie would end up with the audio muted.[172] Disney withdrew a separate copyright strike from a different uploader shortly after it was challenged.[173]
Censorship
In 1930, the German Board of Film Censors prohibited any presentations of the 1929 Mickey Mouse cartoonThe Barnyard Battle. The animated short, which features the mouse as akepi-wearing soldier fighting cat enemies in German-style helmets, was viewed by censors as a negative portrayal of Germany.[174] It was claimed by the board that the film would "reawaken the latest anti-German feeling existing abroad since the War".[175] TheBarnyard Battle incident did not incite wider anti-Mickey sentiment in Germany in 1930; however, afterAdolf Hitler came to power several years later, the Nazi regime unambiguously propagandized against Disney. A mid-1930s German newspaper article read:
Mickey Mouse is the most miserable ideal ever revealed. Healthy emotions tell every independent young man and every honorable youth that the dirty and filth-covered vermin, the greatest bacteria carrier in the animal kingdom, cannot be the ideal type of animal. Away with Jewish brutalization of the people! Down with Mickey Mouse! Wear theSwastika Cross![176][177][178]
American cartoonist and writerArt Spiegelman would later use this quote on the opening page of the second volume of his graphic novelMaus.
In 1935, Romanian authorities alsobanned Mickey Mouse films from cinemas, purportedly fearing that children would be "scared to see a ten-foot mouse in the movie theatre".[179] In 1938, based on theMinistry of Popular Culture's recommendation that a reform was necessary "to raise children in the firm and imperialist spirit of the Fascist revolution", theItalian Government banned foreign children's literature[180] except Mickey; Disney characters were exempted from the decree for the "acknowledged artistic merit" of Disney's work.[181] Actually, Mussolini's children were fond of Mickey Mouse, so they managed to delay his ban as long as possible.[182] In 1942, after Italy declared war on the United States, Italian publishers were forced to stop printing any Disney stories. Mickey's stories were replaced by the adventures ofTuffolino, a new human character that looked like Mickey, created byFederico Pedrocchi (script) andPier Lorenzo De Vita (art). After the downfall of Italy's fascist government in 1945, the ban was removed.
In 1994, four of Mickey's cartoons were included in the bookThe 50 Greatest Cartoons which listed the greatest cartoons of all time as voted by members of the animation field. The films wereThe Band Concert (#3),Steamboat Willie (#13),Brave Little Tailor (#26), andClock Cleaners (#27).[185]
On November 18, 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, Mickey became the first cartoon character to have a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame. The star is located on 6925 Hollywood Blvd.[186]
Melbourne (Australia) runs the annualMoomba festival street procession and appointed Mickey Mouse as theirKing of Moomba (1977).[187]: 17–22 Although immensely popular with children, there was controversy with the appointment: some Melburnians wanted a "home-grown" choice, e.g.Blinky Bill; when it was revealed that Patricia O'Carroll (from Disneyland's Disney on Parade show) was performing the mouse, Australian newspapers reported "Mickey Mouse is really a girl!"[187]: 19–20
^Over the years, the name 'Mortimer Mouse' was eventually given to several different characters in theMickey Mouse universe:Minnie Mouse's uncle, who appears in several comics stories, one of Mickey's antagonists who competes for Minnie's affections in various works, and one of Mickey's nephews, Morty.
^Mickey Rooney voiced the post-Disney Oswald the Rabbit in a couple of 1931 films.[15]
^Disney employeesJohn Hench andMarc Davis believed that this initial design was part of Mickey's success as it made him more dynamic and appealing.
^Prototypical Mickeys by Walt Disney are designed this way as well, sometimes with light gloves.[23]Frank Thomas andOllie Johnston explain that Mickey's original eyes consist of a smallpupil and goggle-likewhites (any 'hairline' defined by the eyes and lips).[24]
^Although the design had been developed for earlier characters, Walt Disney playfully explained: "Artistically, five digits are too many for a mouse. His hand would look like a bunch of bananas. Financially, not having an extra finger in each of 45,000 drawings that make up a six and one-half minute short has saved the studio millions."[35] Disney also stated that the gloves helped make Mickey appear more human.[36]
^ColleagueWard Kimball praised Moore for being the first animator to break from Mickey's "rubber hose, round circle" design.[citation needed]
^The original eye outlines were left, essentially forming awidow's peak.
^E.g. a bandmaster coat (The Band Concert,The Mickey Mouse Club), overalls (Clock Cleaners,Boat Builders), a cloak (Fantasia,Fun and Fancy Free), a coat (Squatter's Rights,Mickey's Christmas Carol), and a shirt (Mickey Down Under,The Simple Things)
^While the silent version ofPlane Crazy became public domain in the U.S., that version is not known to be extant. The widely released sound version remained under copyright in the United States until 2025.
^The first two seasons were titledMickey and the Roadster Racers.
^McKimson Jr., Robert (2012)."I Say, I Say ... Son!": A Tribute to Legendary Animators Bob, Chuck, and Tom McKimson. Santa Monica Press. pp. 18,20–21,23–24.ISBN978-1-59580-069-5.
^abInge, M. Thomas (September 30, 2014). Apgar, Garry (ed.).A Mickey Mouse Reader. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 341–342.ISBN9781626743601.Archived from the original on November 29, 2023. RetrievedFebruary 2, 2017 – via Google Books.
^Grob, Gijs (2018). "The Jazz Fool".Mickey's Movies: The Theatrical Films of Mickey Mouse. Theme Park Press.ISBN978-1683901235.
^Reynolds, David S. (2011).Mightier than the Sword: Uncle Tom's Cabin and the Battle for America, 243. W. W. Norton & Company.
^Thomas & Johnston 1995, p. 56. "Mickey's body was black, his arms and his hands—all black. There was no way to stage an action except in silhouette. ... A hand in front of a chest would simply disappear."
^Frank Thomas (2002).Walt Disney Treasures: Wave Two-Mickey Mouse in Black & White (DVD), Disc 1, Bonus Features:Frank and Ollie... and Mickey featurette (2002) (DVD).The Walt Disney Company.There was an interesting bit of development there. They drew [Mickey Mouse] with black hands on the black arm against the black body and black feet. And if he said something in here (gestures in front of body), you couldn't see it and won't realize. Fairly early they had tried it on him, putting the white gloves on him here, and the white shoes, but it had to clear up.
^abcdCanemaker, John (September 30, 2014). Apgar, Garry (ed.).A Mickey Mouse Reader. University Press of Mississippi. p. 303.ISBN9781626743601. RetrievedApril 16, 2024 – via Google Books.
^Gordon, Ian (2002)."Felix the Cat".St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture. Archived fromthe original on June 28, 2009.
^Mickey was first pictured with a real human inFantasia in silhouette. Later a famous statue of Mickey and Walt Disney at Disneyland would maintain Mickey's size.
^Ryan, Jeff (2018).A Mouse Divided: How Ub Iwerks Became Forgotten, and Walt Disney Became Uncle Walt. Post Hill Press. pp. 181–183.ISBN978-1-68261-628-4.
^Grob, Gijs (2018). "Wild Waves".Mickey's Movies: The Theatrical Films of Mickey Mouse. Theme Park Press.ISBN978-1683901235.
^abTatham, Chelsea (2019).Mickey Mouse and Merry Melodies: How Disney and Warner Bros. Animation Entertained and Inspired Americans During the Great Depression. The Saber and Scroll Journal. p. 40.
^Donald Duck & Mickey Mouse & Goofy (November 13, 2020).The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse (Album). Walt Disney Records.Archived from the original on November 29, 2023. RetrievedJanuary 3, 2022 – via Amazon.
^"Film music". BBC. Archived fromthe original on November 12, 2010. RetrievedOctober 21, 2010.When the music is precisely synchronised with events on screen this is known as Mickey-Mousing, eg someone slipping on a banana skin could use a descending scale followed by a cymbal crash. Mickey-Mousing is often found in comedy films.
^Newlin, Dika (1977). "Music for the Flickering Image – American Film Scores",Music Educators Journal, Vol. 64, No. 1. (September 1977), pp. 24–35
^Helvering, David Allen (July 2007). "Functions of Dialogue Underscoring in American Feature Film", p. 177. The University of Iowa.ISBN9780549235040.
^Rosenberg, Pnina (2002). "Mickey Mouse in Gurs – humour, irony and criticism in works of art produced in the Gurs internment camp".Rethinking History: The Journal of Theory and Practice.6 (3):273–292.doi:10.1080/13642520210164508.ISSN1364-2529.S2CID143675622.
^Conner, Floyd (2002).Hollywood's Most Wanted: The Top 10 Book of Lucky Breaks, Prima Donnas, Box Office Bombs, and Other Oddities. illustrated. Brassey's Inc. p. 243.
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