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| Michael the Brave | |
|---|---|
| Prince of Wallachia Imperial governor of Transylvania Prince of Moldavia | |
 Portrait byAegidius Sadeler II, 1601 | |
| Prince of Wallachia | |
| Reign | September 1593 – August 1601 |
| Predecessor | Alexandru cel Rău |
| Successor | Radu Mihnea |
| Prince of Transylvania (de facto) | |
| Reign | October 1599 – September 1600 |
| Predecessor | Andrew Báthory |
| Successor | Sigismund Báthory |
| Prince of Moldavia | |
| Reign | May – September 1600 |
| Predecessor | Ieremia Movilă |
| Successor | Ieremia Movilă |
| Born | Mihai Pătrașcu 15 January 1558 Târgul de Floci (nearGiurgeni),Wallachia[1] |
| Died | 9 August 1601 (aged 42–43) Torda,Principality of Transylvania (nowTurda,Romania) |
| Burial | 12 August 1601 |
| Spouse | Doamna Stanca |
| Issue | Nicolae Pătrașcu Domnița Florica |
| House | Drăculești |
| Father | Pătrașcu cel Bun |
| Mother | Teodora Cantacuzino |
| Religion | Orthodox Christian |
| Signature | %2c_1593.svg) |
Michael the Brave (Romanian:Mihai Viteazul[miˈhajviˈte̯azul] orMihai Bravu[ˈbravu]; 1558 – 9 August 1601), born asMihai Pătrașcu, was the Prince ofWallachia (asMichael II, 1593–1601), Prince ofMoldavia (1600) andde facto ruler ofTransylvania (1599–1600). He is considered one of Romania's greatest national heroes.[2] Since the 19th century, Michael the Brave has been regarded byRomanian nationalists as a symbol of Romanian unity,[3] as his reign marked the first time in history all principalities inhabited by Romanians were under the same ruler.[4]
His rule over Wallachia began in the autumn of 1593. Two years later,war with theOttomans began, a conflict in which the Prince fought theBattle of Călugăreni, resulting in a victory against an army nearly three times the size of the army of Michael the Brave, considered one of the most important battles of his reign. Although the Wallachians emerged victorious from the battle, Michael was forced to retreat with his troops and wait for aid from his allies, PrinceSigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Holy Roman EmperorRudolf II. The war continued until a peace finally emerged in January 1597, but this lasted for only a year and a half. Peace was again reached in late 1599, when Michael was unable to continue the war due to lack of support from his allies. In 1599, Michael won theBattle of Șelimbăr againstAndrew Báthory and soon enteredGyulafehérvár (today Alba Iulia, Romania), becoming the imperial governor (i.e.de facto ruler) of Transylvania, underHabsburg suzerainty. A few months later, Michael's troops invaded Moldavia and reached its capital,Iași. The Moldavian leaderIeremia Movilă fled to Poland and Michael was declaredPrince of Moldavia. During this period, Michael the Brave changed his seal to represent his personal union of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania.
The interests of the three neighbouring great powers – theHabsburg monarchy, theOttoman Empire, and thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – were damaged by Michael the Brave's achievements. Although he acknowledged the suzerainty of Rudolf II, Michael the Brave continued to negotiate his official position in Transylvania, pleading for direct rule instead of being imperial governor. Michael kept the control of all three provinces for less than a year before the Hungarian nobility of Transylvania rose against him in a series of revolts with the support of the Austrian army commanded by the Italian GeneralGiorgio Basta, defeating Michael the Brave at theBattle of Mirăslău, forcing the prince to leave Transylvania and retreat toWallachia with his remaining troops, while the forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth enteredMoldavia and defeated the forces loyal to Michael the Brave, restoringIeremia Movilă on the throne. The Polish army led byJan Zamoyski also advanced in eastern Wallachia and establishedSimion Movilă as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only inOltenia.
Michael the Brave then left forPrague, seeking audience with Emperor Rudolf II; however, the emperor refused to allow him audience. But GeneralGiorgio Basta's governance ofTransylvania faced significant opposition from the Hungarian nobility, leading to the reinstallation ofSigismund Báthory, who turned his back on Emperor Rudolf II and declared submission to thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after receiving substantial military support. This led to Emperor Rudolf II accepting Michael the Brave's audience and providing him with 100,000 florins to rebuild his army. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael inWallachia led by his son, Nicolae Pătrașcu, droveSimion Movilă out of Moldavia and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael the Brave, allied with Giorgio Basta, defeated the Hungarian army at theBattle of Guruslău. A few days later Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself,assassinated Michael by order of the Habsburg Emperor Rudolf II.
Michael was born in 1558.[5][6] He claimed to have been the illegitimate son of WallachianPrincePătrașcu cel Bun (Pătrașcu the Good),[7][8] of theDrăculești branch of theHouse of Basarab, close to theSeptilici family; some historians believe he merely invented his descent in order to justify his rule.[9][10] His real father was most likely aGreek merchant.[11] His mother wasTheodora Kantakouzene [ro], a member of the Greek noble familyKantakouzenoi, present in Wallachia and Moldavia, and allegedly descended from theByzantine EmperorJohn VI Kantakouzenos.[12][13][14] She was born in theGreek region of Epirus and she may have been the sister of the famous Greek magnateMichael Kantakouzenos Şeytanoğlu, as well as the cousin ofIane Cantacuzino [ro].[14] Michael could probably speakGreek too, besides Romanian.[15]
Michael's political rise was quite spectacular, as he became theBan ofMehedinți in 1588,stolnic at the court ofMihnea Turcitul by the end of 1588, andBan of Craiova in 1593 – during the rule ofAlexandru cel Rău. The latter had him swear before 12boyars that he was not of princely descent.[16] Still, in May 1593 conflict did break out between Alexandru and Michael, who was forced to flee to Transylvania. He was accompanied by his half-brother Radu Florescu,Radu Buzescu and several other supporters.[17] After spending two weeks at the court ofSigismund Báthory, he left forConstantinople, where with help from his cousinAndronikos Kantakouzenos (the eldest son ofMichael "Şeytanoğlu" Kantakouzenos) andPatriarch Jeremiah II he negotiatedOttoman support for his accession to the Wallachian throne. He was supported by the English ambassador in the Ottoman capital,Edward Barton, and aided by a loan of 200,000 florins.[17] Michael was invested Prince by SultanMurad III in September 1593 and started his effective rule on 11 October.[18]
Not long after Michael became Prince of Wallachia, he turned against the Ottoman Empire. The next year he joined theChristian alliance ofEuropean powers formed byPope Clement VIII against the Turks, and signed treaties with his neighbours:Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania,Aaron the Tyrant ofMoldavia and the Holy Roman Emperor,Rudolf II (seeHoly League of Pope Clement VIII). He started a campaign against the Turks in the autumn of 1594, conquering several citadels near theDanube, includingGiurgiu,Brăila,Hârșova, andSilistra, while his Moldavian allies defeated theTurks inIași and other parts of Moldavia.[19] Mihai continued his attacks deep within the Ottoman Empire, taking the forts ofNicopolis, Ribnic, andChilia[20] and even reaching as far asAdrianople.[21]
In 1595,Sigismund Báthory staged an elaborate plot and had Aaron the Tyrant, voivode of Moldavia, removed from power.[22]István Jósika (Báthory's chancellor and an ethnic Romanian)[23] masterminded the operation.Ștefan Răzvan arrested Aron on charges of treason on the night of 24 April (5 May) and sent him to the Transylvanian capital at Gyulafehérvár with his family and treasure. Aron would die poisoned by the end of May in the castle ofVinc. Sigismund was forced to justify his actions before the European powers, since Aron had played an active role in the anti-Ottoman coalition. Later on, in the same city of Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, in Romania of today), Wallachian boyars signed a treaty with Sigismund on Michael's behalf. From the point of view of Wallachian internal politics, the "Treaty of Gyulafehérvár" codified what could be called aboyar regime, reinforcing the already important political power of the noble elite. According to the treaty, a council of 12 great boyars was to take part alongside thevoivode in the executive rule of the country.[citation needed]
Boyars could no longer be executed without the knowledge and approval of the Transylvanian Prince and, if convicted for treason, their fortunes could no longer be confiscated. Apparently Michael was displeased with the final form of the treaty negotiated by his envoys, but was forced to comply. Prince Michael said in a conversation with thePolish envoy Lubieniecki:... they did not proceed as stated in their instructions but as their own good required and obtained privileges for themselves. He would try to avoid the obligations imposed on him for the rest of his reign.[24]
During his reign, Michael relied heavily on the loyalty and support of a group of Oltenian lords, the most important of whom were Buzescu Brothers (Romanian:Frații Buzești) and his own relatives on his mother's side, the Cantacuzinos.[25] He consequently protected their interests throughout his reign; for example, he passed a law binding serfs to lands owned by aristocrats.[26] From the standpoint of religious jurisdiction, the Treaty of Gyulafehérvár had another important consequence: it placed all theEastern Orthodox bishops in Transylvania under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Seat ofTârgoviște.[24]
During this period, the Ottoman army, based inRuse, was preparing to cross the Danube and undertake a major attack. Michael was quickly forced to retreat and the Ottoman forces started to cross the Danube on 4 August 1595. As his army was outnumbered, Michael avoided carrying the battle in open field, and decided to give battle on a marshy field located near the village of Călugăreni on theNeajlov river. TheBattle of Călugăreni started on 13 August and Michael defeated the Ottoman army led bySinan Pasha.[24] Despite the victory, he retreated to his winter camp inStoienești because he had too few troops to mount a full-scale war against the remaining Ottoman forces. He subsequently joined forces with Sigismund Báthory's 40,000-man army (led byStephen Bocskai) and counterattacked the Ottomans, freeing the towns ofTârgoviște (8 October),Bucharest (12 October) andBrăila, temporarily removing Wallachia from Ottoman suzerainty.
The fight against the Ottomans continued in 1596 when Michael made several incursions south of the Danube atVidin,Pleven,Nicopolis, andBabadag, where he was assisted by the localBulgarians during theFirst Tarnovo Uprising.[27]
During late 1596, Michael was faced with an unexpected attack from theTatars, who had destroyed the towns of Bucharest andBuzău. By the time Michael gathered his army to counterattack, the Tatars had speedily retreated and so no battle was fought. Michael was determined to continue the war against the Ottomans, but he was prevented because he lacked support from Sigismund Báthory and Rudolf II. On 7 January 1597Hasan Pasha declared the independence of Wallachia under Michael's rule,[28] but Michael knew that this was only an attempt to divert him from preparing for another future attack. Michael again requested Rudolf II's support and Rudolf finally agreed to send financial assistance to the Wallachian ruler. On 9 June 1598 a formal treaty was reached between Michael and Rudolf II. According to the treaty, the Austrian ruler would give Wallachia sufficient money to maintain a 5,000-man army, as well as armaments and supplies.[29] Shortly after the treaty was signed, the war with the Ottomans resumed and Michael besiegedNicopolis on 10 September 1598 and took control ofVidin. The war with the Ottomans continued until 26 June 1599, when Michael, lacking the resources and support to continue prosecuting the war, signed a peace treaty.[30]
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In April 1598, Sigismund resigned asPrince of Transylvania in favour of theHoly Roman Emperor,Rudolf II (who was also theKing of Hungary); reversed his decision in October 1598; and then resigned again in favour ofCardinalAndrew Báthory, his cousin.[31] Báthory had strong ties to thePolish chancellor andhetmanJan Zamoyski and placed Transylvania under the influence of theKing ofPoland,Sigismund III Vasa. He was also a trusted ally of the new Moldavian PrinceIeremia Movilă, one of Michael's greatest enemies.[30] Movilă had deposed Ștefan Răzvan with the help of Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski in August 1595.[30]
Having to face this new threat, Michael asked Emperor Rudolf to become the sovereign of Wallachia. On 25 September, Báthory issued an ultimatum demanding that Michael abandon his throne.[32] Michael decided to attack Andrew Cardinal Báthory immediately to prevent invasion. He would later describe the events:
I rose with my country, my children, taking my wife and everything I had and with my army[marched into Transylvania] so that the foe should not crush me here.
He left Târgoviște on 2 October, and 9 by October he had reachedPrejmer in southern Transylvania, where he met envoys from the city ofBrassó (today Brașov, Romania). Sparing the city, he moved on toKerc (today Cârța, Romania), where he joined forces with theSzékelys.[32]
On 18 October 1599 Michael won a decisive victory[33] against the army of prince-cardinal Andrew Báthory at theBattle of Șelimbăr, giving him control of Transylvania. As he retreated from the battle, Andrew Báthory was killed by anti-BáthorySzékely on 3 November nearCsíkszentdomokos (today Sândominic, Romania) and Michael gave him a princely burial in theRoman Catholic Cathedral of Gyulafehérvár.[34] With his enemy dead, Michael entered the Transylvanian capital at Gyulafehérvár and received the keys to the fortress from BishopDemeter Naprágyi, later depicted as a seminal event in Romanianhistoriography. HistorianIstván Szamosközy, keeper of the Archives at the time, recorded the event in great detail. He also wrote that two days before the Diet met on 10 October, Transylvanian nobleselected Michael the voivode as Prince of Transylvania. As the Diet was assembled, Michael demanded that the estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudolf, then to himself and thirdly to his son.[35] Even if he was recognized by the Transylvanian diet as only imperial governor subject to the Holy Roman Emperor, he was nonetheless ruler of Transylvania.[36]
In Transylvania Michael used the following signature on official documents:Michael Valachiae Transalpinae Woivoda, Sacrae Caesareae Regiae Majestatis Consiliarius per Transylvaniam Locumtenens, cis transylvaniam partium eius super exercitu Generalis Capitaneus". ("Michael, voivode of Wallachia, the councillor of His Majesty the Emperor and the King, his deputy in Transylvania and General Captain of his troops from Transylvania.")
When Michael entered Transylvania, he did not immediately free or grant rights to the Romanian inhabitants, who were primarily peasants but, nevertheless, constituted a significant proportion[notes 1] of the population. Michael demonstrated his support by upholding theUnion of the Three Nations, which acknowledged only the traditional rights and privileges of the Hungarians, Székelys andSaxons, but he did not recognize the rights of the Romanians.[37][38] Indeed, while he brought some of his Wallachian aides to Transylvania, he also invited some Székelys and other Transylvanian Hungarians to assist in the administration of Wallachia, where he wished to transplant Transylvania's far more advanced feudal system.
Michael began negotiating with the Emperor over his official position in Transylvania. The latter wanted the principality under direct Imperial rule with Michael acting as governor. The Wallachianvoivode, on the other hand, wanted the title of Prince of Transylvania for himself and equally claimed thePartium region. Michael was, nevertheless, willing to acknowledgeHabsburg overlordship.[39][40][41]
The Moldavian PrinceIeremia Movilă had been an old enemy of Michael, having incited Andrew Báthory to send Michael the ultimatum demanding his abdication.[42] His brother,Simion Movilă, claimed the Wallachian throne for himself and had used the title of Voivode since 1595. Aware of the threat the Movilăs represented, Michael had created theBanate ofBuzău andBrăila in July 1598 and the newban was charged of keeping an alert eye on Moldavian,Tatar, andCossack moves, although Michael had been planning a Moldavian campaign for several years.[42]
On 28 February 1600 Michael met with Polish envoys in Brassó. He was willing to recognise the Polish King as his sovereign in exchange for the crown of Moldavia and the recognition of his male heirs' hereditary right over the three principalities, Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. This did not significantly delay his attack, however; on 14 April 1600 Michael's troops entered Moldavia on multiple routes, the Prince himself leading the main thrust toTrotuș andRoman.[43] He reached the capital ofIași on 6 May. The garrison surrendered the citadel the next day and Michael's forces caught up with the fleeing Ieremia Movilă, who was saved from being captured only by the sacrifice of his rear-guard. Movilă took refuge in the castle ofHotin together with his family, a handful of faithful boyars and the former Transylvanian Prince, Sigismund Báthory.[42] The Moldavian soldiers in the castle deserted, leaving a small Polish contingent as sole defenders. Under the cover of dark, sometime before 11 June, Movilă managed to sneak out of the walls and across theDniester tohetmanStanisław Żółkiewski's camp.[43]
Neighboring states were alarmed by this upsetting of the balance of power, especially theHungarian nobility in Transylvania, who rose against Michael in rebellion. With the help of Basta, they defeated Michael at theBattle of Mirăslău, forcing the prince to leave Transylvania together with his remaining loyal troops.[44] A Polish army led byJan Zamoyski drove the Wallachians from Moldavia and defeated Michael atNăieni,Ceptura, andBucov (Battle of the Teleajăn River). The Polish army also entered eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only inOltenia.[45]
Michael asked again for assistance fromEmperorRudolf II during a visit inPrague between 23 February and 5 March 1601, which was granted when the emperor heard that GeneralGiorgio Basta had lost control of Transylvania to the Hungarian nobility led bySigismund Báthory, who accepted Ottoman protection. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son,Nicolae Pătrașcu, droveSimion Movilă out ofWallachia and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael, allied with Basta, defeated the Hungarian army inBattle of Guruslău. A few days later, Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself,assassinated Michael by order of the Habsburg Emperor; the killing took place nearCâmpia Turzii on 9 August 1601.[46] According to Romanian historianConstantin C. Giurescu:[45]
Never in Romanian history was a moment of such highness and glory so closely followed by bitter failure.
The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modernRomania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity byNicolae Bălcescu. This theory became a point of reference fornationalists, as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state.[47] To Romanian Romantic nationalists,[48] he was regarded as one of Romania's greatest national heroes. He is known in Romanian historiography asMihai Viteazul or, less commonly,Mihai Bravu.
The prince began to be perceived as aunifier towards the middle of the 19th century.[3]
In the writings of the Moldavian chroniclerMiron Costin, Michael the Brave appears in the role of conqueror of Transylvania and Moldavia, "the cause of much spilling of blood among Christians", and not even highly appreciated by his ownWallachians: "The Wallachians became tired of the warful rule of Voivode Mihai".[49]
The perspective of the Wallachians themselves is to be found inThe History of the Princes of Wallachia, attributed to the chronicler Radu Popescu (1655–1729), which bundles together all Michael's adversaries without distinction. Romanians and foreigners alike: "He subjected the Turks, the Moldavians, and the Hungarians to his rule, as if they were his asses."
Samuil Micu, a member of theTransylvanian School wrote in his workShort Explanation of the History of the Romanians (written in the 1790s): "In the year 1593, Michael, who is called the Brave, succeeded to the lordship of Wallachia. He was a great warrior, who fought the Turks and defeated the Transylvanians. And he took Transylvania and gave it to Emperor Rudolf".[50][51][verification needed]
A. D. Xenopol firmly states the absence of any national element in Michael's politics, holding that Michael's lack of desire to join the principalities' administrations proved his actions were not motivated by any such concept.[52]
However,Đorđe Branković (born 1645), a Transylvanian-born Serbian chronicler who long resided in Transylvania and Wallachia, stated in hisCronica românească ("Romanian chronicle")[a] that by ruling over Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia, Michael "expanded the power of the Romanian nation".[53]
Several Romanian settlements named after him, such as:
Michael is also commemorated by the monks of theAthoniteSimonopetra Monastery for his great contributions in the form of land and money to rebuilding the monastery that had been destroyed by a fire.
Mihai Viteazul, a film bySergiu Nicolaescu, a well-known Romanian film director, is a representation of the life of theWallachian ruler and his will to unite the three Romanianprincipalities (Wallachia,Moldavia, andTransylvania) as one domain.[citation needed]
TheOrder of Michael the Brave, Romania's highestmilitary decoration, was named after Michael.[54] Mihai Viteazul's name and portrait appear on at least two Romanian coins: 5Lei 1991 (only 3 pieces of this type were minted and the coin was not entered into circulation), and on 100 Lei, which circulated through the 1990s.[55]
At least four major high schools in Romania bear his name: theMihai Viteazul National College (Bucharest) theMihai Viteazul National College (Ploiești) [ro], theMihai Viteazul National College (Slobozia) and Mihai Viteazul National College (Galați)
The seal comprises the coats of arms of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania: in the middle, on a shield the Moldavianurus, above Wallachianeagle between sun and moon holding cross in beak, below Byzantinecoat of arms, belonging to theKantakouzenos – Asen branch ofAsen dynasty: two meeting, standinglions supporting a sword, treading on seven mountains. The Moldavian shield is held by two crowned figures.
There are two inscriptions on the seal. First, circular, in Slavonic usingRomanian Cyrillic alphabet "IO MIHAILI UGROVLAHISCOI VOEVOD ARDEALSCOI MOLD ZEMLI", meaning "Io Michael Wallachian Voivode of Transylvanian and Moldavian Lands". Second, placed along a circular arc separating the Wallachian coat from the rest of the heraldic composition, "I ML BJE MLRDIE", could be translated "Through The Very Grace of God".[56]
Michael (Pătraşcu) the Brave
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)Michael was the son of Pătrașcu cel Bun ('the Good'), voivode from 1553 to 1557, and that Michael's mother, Tudora, was a member of the powerful Kantakouzinos family. This would neatly explain the Kantakouzini's support for Michael.
Domnul Mihaiu, voevodul Țărâi Muntenești, dupre ce au bătut multe războae turcești și de alte neamuri, au bătut și pre Batorie Andraș, prințepsul Ardealului, la Sibiiu, și i-au luat țara, intru carea au făcut și pravoslavnica sfânta mănăstire Mitropoliia. Cu vitejie vreadnică otcârmuind, au lățit putearea neamului rumânesc și cu fericire stăpânind măriia sa câte trei țări, adecă Ardealul, Moldova și Țara Muntenească, pre urmă, după câțiva ani, au perit la Turda.[Lord Michael, Voivode of Wallachia, after winning many wars against the Turks and other nations, also defeated Andrew Báthory, Prince of Transylvania, at Sibiu, and took his country, in which he also built the Orthodox holy monastery — the Metropolitan Church. Ruling with worthy bravery, he extended the power of the Romanian nation, and, in happiness, his Highness ruled over three countries — namely Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. In the end, after a few years, he perished at Turda.]
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Mihai I of Wallachia Died: 1601 9 August | ||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Prince of Wallachia 1593–1600 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Prince of Moldavia 1600 | Succeeded by |
| Notes and references | ||
| 1.Regnal Chronologies | ||
