| Michael III | |
|---|---|
| Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans | |
 Michael III as depicted in the 12th centuryMadrid Skylitzes | |
| Byzantine emperor | |
| Reign | 20 January 842 – 24 September 867 |
| Coronation | 16 May 840 (as co-emperor) |
| Predecessor | Theophilos |
| Successor | Basil I |
| Co-rulers | |
| Born | 9/10 January 840 |
| Died | 24 September 867 (aged 27) Constantinople |
| Wife | |
| Issue |
|
| Dynasty | Amorian |
| Father | Theophilos |
| Mother | Theodora |
| Amorian dynasty | ||
|---|---|---|
| Chronology | ||
| ||
| Succession | ||
| ||
Michael III (Ancient Greek:Μιχαήλ,romanized: Michaḗl; 9/10 January 840 – 24 September 867), also known asMichael the Drunkard, wasByzantine emperor from 842 to 867. Michael III was the third and traditionally last member of theAmorian (or Phrygian) dynasty. He was given the disparaging epithetthe Drunkard (ὁ Μέθυσος) by the hostile historians of the succeedingMacedonian dynasty, but modern historical research has rehabilitated his reputation to some extent, demonstrating the vital role his reign played in the resurgence of Byzantine power in the 9th century.[1][2] He was also the youngest person to bear the imperial title (aged 4 months), as well as the youngest to succeed as senior emperor (aged 2) in the Roman Empire. In 867, Michael was assassinated by his successor,Basil I.
Michael was the youngest child of the emperorTheophilos and his empressTheodora. His precise date of birth is uncertain, but the balance of available evidence supports a birthdate in early 840, probably on 9 or 10 January.[3] He wascrowned co-emperor soon after, probably on 16 May of the same year.[b][c] Michael had just turned two years old when his father died, and Michael succeeded him as sole emperor on 20 January 842.
During Michael'sminority, the empire was governed by aregency headed by his mother Theodora, her uncle Sergios, and theeunuchTheoktistos, who wasPostal Logothete and the most powerful of the three. Within a year the regents had begun to carefully plan a program of restoring iconophile orthodoxy. Stories of Theodora's secret devotion to images during Theophilos' reign are dubious and she was likely motivated not only by religious but also political and pragmatic concerns. Theoktistos had been an enthusiastic supporter of Theophilos and so was clearly motivated by pragmatism in endorsing the later iconophile program. Yet there was little opposition other than from John VII and the clergy of theHagia Sophia. The future PatriarchMethodios I held a synod in thePalace of Blachernae rather than in the patriarchal church, which suggests that they resisted the changes. However in March, theActs of theSecond Council of Nicaea (787) were reaffirmed and the leading iconoclasts of theCouncil of Constantinople of 815 declared to be heretics. Theophilos was not mentioned in order to not alienate the ruling imperial family and its supporters. Theodora had also explicitly demanded that her husband not be dishonoured. PatriarchJohn VII of Constantinople was then asked to resign, and replaced him with the iconophile Methodios, who, despite his iconophilism, was a close associate of Theophilos. The occasion was marked with a solemn procession on the first Sunday ofLent (11 March 843), fromBlachernae to the Hagia Sophia, followed by a liturgy in the church. These events came to be known as the "Triumph of Orthodoxy". Methodios carried out an expulsion of iconoclast clergy and was later accused of fomenting dissension within the church. The sources, which are sympathetic to iconophilism, do not report much dissent among the clergy or general population, which suggests a general passivity or neutrality on the issue. With these events the second spell ofByzantine iconoclasm was put to an end, and the autonomy of the Church was affirmed against imperial power.[6][7][8]
As the emperor was growing up, the courtiers around him fought for influence. Theoktistos disliked Michael's uncleBardas, and excluded him from court politics. When Theodora and Theoktistos arranged the marriage ofEudokia Dekapolitissa to Michael, who preferredEudokia Ingerina, Bardas won his nephew's favour by persuading him to allow a plot to murder Theoktistos. In 855, the regency was overthrown when Theoktistos was murdered in theGreat Palace of Constantinople, and in 857, Theodora was barred from government and relegated along with her daughters to a monastery in 857.[9][10]
The internal stabilisation of the state was not entirely matched along the frontiers. Although theAbbasid Caliphate was no longer launching major invasions, and raids were led by localamirs along the frontier rather than the Caliph himself, Byzantine forces were defeated by theAbbasids inPamphylia,Crete, and on the border withSyria, but a Byzantine fleet of 85 ships did score a victory over theArabs in 853. There were also many operations around the Aegean and off the Syrian coast by at least three more fleets, numbering 300 ships total. The Byzantines were able to successfully assaultDamietta inEgypt in 853. In the 820s,Andalusian Arab pirates seizedCrete, which Theoktistos attempted to regain in the first year of the regency, though unsuccessfully. Bardas was planning to sail there but was murdered on the instigation of Basil in 866. The recapture was not achieved until 961, long after Michael's reign.[11]
A conflict between the Byzantines and theFirst Bulgarian Empire occurred during 855 and 856. The Byzantine Empire wanted to regain its control over some areas of Thrace, includingPhilippopolis and the ports around the Gulf of Burgas on theBlack Sea. Byzantine forces, led by the emperor and the caesar Bardas, were successful in reconquering a number of cities – Philippopolis,Develtus, Anchialus and Mesembria among them – as well as the region ofZagora.[12] At the time of this campaign the Bulgarians were distracted by a war with theFranks underLouis the German and theCroatians. In 853, KhanBoris I of Bulgaria had allied himself to DukeRastislav of Moravia against the Franks. The Bulgarians were heavily defeated by the Franks; following this, the Moravians changed sides and the Bulgarians then faced threats from Moravia.[13]
Following an expedition led by Michael's uncle and general, Petronas, against thePaulicians from the eastern frontier and the Arab borderlands in 856, the imperial government resettled them inThrace, thus cutting them off from their coreligionists and populating another border region.[14] The Paulicians, whose power centre wasTephrike, were heavily persecuted after the restoration of icons as they were deemed unorthodox. It was only in 872 thatChristopher,Domestic of the Schools, defeated their leaderChrysocheir, and Tephrike was taken in 878.[15] Michael was also responsible, as per the writings ofConstantine VII, for the subjugation of the Slavs settled in thePeloponnese.[16]
Michael took an active part in the wars against theAbbasids and their vassals on the eastern frontier from 856 to 863, and particularly in 857 when he sent an army of 50,000 men againstEmirUmar al-Aqta ofMelitene. In 859, he personally led a siege onSamosata, but in 860 had to abandon the expedition to repel a navalattack by theRus' onConstantinople. The Rus' fleet plundered the outer suburbs of the city but left of their own volition, probably because they had acquired sufficient booty. The subsequent relationship with the Rus' was mixed; they requested a Byzantine mission which was short-lived, and engaged in further raids but also trade in the tenth century. It was only in the late tenth century that theChristianisation of the Rus' was achieved by Grand PrinceVladimir of Kiev.[17]
Soon after the raid, Duke Rastislav requested a Byzantine mission, perhaps to secure a political counterweight to his neighbours; the Franks and the Bulgars. In 863, they sentCyril and Methodius, who were fromThessalonika. They developed the firstSlavic alphabet, theGlagolitic alphabet, and translated many religious texts into this new literary language. Their mission ceased when Rastislav died and other Slavic princes as well as the Franks pressured them. Nevertheless Cyril, Methodius and their disciples were influential in the newly Christian Bulgaria, where they were exiled to fromMoravia in 885. They were installed atOhrid andPliska, where they were charged with the creation of a Slavic clergy and the expounding of Christianity in the Slavic vernacular, althoughGreek remained the liturgical and ceremonial language.[18]
In 863, Petronas defeated and killed the emir of Melitene at theBattle of Lalakaon, and celebrated a triumph in the capital. The year 863 is seen as a turning point in theArab-Byzantine wars, after which the Byzantines began to go on the offensive, leading to their triumph in the tenth century.[19][20]
Within the decentralising Abbasid Caliphate, the Armenians, who were vassals of the Abbasids, even participating in theSack of Amorion of 838, gained a degree of independence.Ashot I of Armenia was crowned king ofArmenia in 884, and recognised by Michael and Basil as "prince of princes". Friendly relations between Byzantium and Armenia continued into the tenth century, to the benefit of Byzantine eastward expansion.[21]
Bardas justified his usurpation of the regency by introducing various internal reforms. Under the influence of both Bardas andPhotios, Michael presided over the reconstruction of ruined cities and structures, the reopening of closed monasteries, and the fostering of intellectual life in the form of the reorganisation of the imperialuniversity at the Maganaura palace underLeo the Mathematician.[22][10]
Photios, originally a layman, had entered holy orders and was promoted to the position of patriarch on the dismissal of the troublesomeIgnatios in 858.[d] Ignatios was a castrated son ofMichael I Rhangabe (r. 811–813) and had deposed one of his predecessorMethodios' associates,Gregory Asbestas, the archbishop ofSyracuse. Gregory appealed to theBishop of Rome. While Gregory awaited a reply, Ignatios was deposed. In spring 859, Ignatios' supporters met inConstantinople and claimed they had deposed Photios, who responded with a synod attacking Ignatios. The stalemate prompted Michael and Photios to send an embassy toPope Nicholas I, whose legates Radoald of Porto and Zacharias of Anagni approved the deposition of Ignatios at theCouncil of Constantinople of 861. However, perhaps partly due to the presence of Ignatios' supporters inRome, Nicholas convened a council in 863 to overrule his legates, declaring that Photios and Asbestas were deposed, leading to thePhotian schism. Michael then wrote a contemptuous letter about the alleged barbarity of Latin Rome.[23]
Fearing the potential conversion ofBoris I of Bulgaria (r. 852–889) toChristianity underFrankish influence, Michael III and the Caesar Bardas invadedBulgaria, imposing the conversion of Boris according to theByzantine rite, as part of the peace settlement of 864. Michael stood as sponsor, by proxy, for Boris at his baptism. Boris took the additional name of Michael at the ceremony. The Byzantines also allowed the Bulgarians to reclaim the contested border region of Zagora.[24] In 866, Boris appeared to have second thoughts and sought patronage from the Franks andPope Nicholas I, requesting a Latinarchbishop. He corresponded with Nicholas, who responded to him by expressing approval of Bulgar customs and severely criticising those of Byzantium. Photios responded by enumerating western doctrinal and disciplinary deviations in anencyclical, deposing Nicholas and requestingLouis the German's aid in overthrowing him. Michael presided over a synod in 867 in which Photios and the three other eastern patriarchs excommunicated Pope Nicholas and condemned the Latinfilioque clause concerning the procession of the Holy Spirit.[25] The conflict over the patriarchal throne and supreme authority within the church was exacerbated by the success of the active missionary efforts launched by Photios. In the same year, Michael was assassinated and Basil reinstated Ignatios. Despite Ignatios' papal leanings in the Photian schism, he allowed Boris to procure a Byzantine-rite archbishop in 870, and the eastern patriarchs forcefully denied any Roman authority in Bulgaria. Byzantine cultural hegemony was secured, and relations between the two empires remained peaceful throughout Michael's reign.[26][23] The conversion of the Bulgarians has been evaluated as one of the greatest cultural and political achievements of the Byzantine Empire.[27]
Under the guidance of Patriarch Photios, Michael sponsored the mission ofSaints Cyril and Methodios to theKhazarKhagan in an effort to stop the expansion ofJudaism among the Khazars. Although this mission was a failure, their next mission in 863 secured the conversion ofGreat Moravia and devised theGlagolitic alphabet for writing inSlavonic, thus allowing Slavic-speaking peoples to approach conversion to Orthodox Christianity through their own rather than an alien tongue.[19]
Michael III's marriage withEudokia Dekapolitissa was childless, but the Emperor did not want to risk a scandal by attempting to marry his mistressEudokia Ingerina, daughter of theVarangian (Norse) imperial guard Inger. The solution he chose was to have Ingerina marry his favorite courtier and chamberlainBasil the Macedonian. While Michael carried on his relationship with Ingerina, Basil was kept satisfied with the emperor's sisterThekla, whom her brother retrieved from a monastery. According toJoseph Genesios, Michael met Basil when he heard of his wrestling ability, while other sources state that they met when Basil successfully broke in one of the Emperor's horses. Whatever the circumstances of their acquaintance, Basil was madeprōtostratōr (head groom) following the execution of the incumbent, a co-conspirator in a plot ofTheodora against Bardas. Michael and Basil appeared to have a common interest inequestrianism, since Michael's favourite pastimes included hunting and chariot-racing, to which end he built luxury stables.[28]
Scholars are divided as to whether Michael and Basil were engaged in ahomosexual relationship. One piece of evidence for this is Basil's appointment asparakoimōmenos, which was usually for the chief eunuch and involved close proximity to the Emperor. It is clear that they had a close relationship, with Basil gaining increasing influence over Michael. In April 866, he convinced the Emperor that Bardas was conspiring against him and was duly allowed to murder Bardas while he was preparing to embark on an expedition toCrete. Now without serious rivals, Basil was crowned co-emperor on 26 May 866 and was adopted by the much younger Michael.[29]
This curious development may have been intended to legitimise the eventual succession to the throne of Eudokia Ingerina's sonLeo, who was widely believed to be Michael's son. Michael celebrated the birth of Leo with publicchariot races, a sport he enthusiastically patronized and participated in.[30]If ensuring Leo's legitimacy had been Michael's plan, it backfired. Ostensibly troubled by the favour Michael was beginning to show to another courtier, namedBasiliskianos, whom he threatened to raise as another co-emperor, Basil had Michael assassinated as he lay insensible in his bedchamber following a drinking bout on 24 September 867.[31][e] Basil with a number of his male relatives, plus other accomplices, entered Michael's apartment; the locks had been tampered with and no guard had been placed. Michael's end was grisly; a man named John of Chaldia killed him, cutting off both the emperor's hands with a sword before finishing him off with a thrust to the heart. Basil, as the sole remaining emperor (Basiliskianos had presumably been disposed of at the same time as Michael), automatically succeeded as the rulingbasileus.[35]
Michael's remains were buried in the Philippikos Monastery at Chrysopolis on the Asian shore of the Bosphoros. When Leo VI became ruling emperor in 886, one of his first acts was to have Michael's body exhumed and reburied, with great ceremony, in the imperial mausoleum in theChurch of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople.[36] This contributed to the suspicion held by the Byzantine public that Leo was (or at least believed himself to be) Michael's son.[37]
The reign and personality of Michael are difficult to evaluate because of the hostile accounts written by Byzantine authors operating underBasil I (r. 867–886) and his successors. Byzantine accounts describe Michael's habitual drunkenness, his obsession with chariot racing and his orchestration of public displays mocking the processions and rituals of the church. His court's politics were characterised by scandal including the assassinations ofBardas,Theoktistos and bizarre relationships with his wife,Eudokia Dekapolitissa, mistress,Eudokia Ingerina and Basil's mistress, Michael's own sisterThekla. And finally Michael's own assassination at the hands of his trusted courtier Basil.[21] The impression gained from Arab sources, however, is one of Michael as an active and often successful military commander.[1] He was also very active in repairing theWalls of Constantinople.[38] Chroniclers of Basil accuse Michael of allowing the registers of military personnel to decline, forcing Basil to undertake a major recruitment effort during his own reign, however the decline could be explained as a natural process due to aging.[39]
As the end of the iconoclast period, Michael's reign was the beginning of a period of religious peace with an established orthodoxy and liturgy, which was not to be interfered with by the emperor.
Despite the bias of the sources, there was a clear continuity in policy between Michael and Basil, which was in the security of the borders with theAbbasid Caliphate andFirst Bulgarian Empire, as well as opportunism regarding theMoravians,Armenians andRus'.[40]
Though Michael was allegedly prone to squander money, his reign stabilised the economy, and by the year 850 the empire's annual revenues had increased to 3,300,000nomismata.[41] The definitive end to iconoclasm early in his reign led, unsurprisingly, to a renaissance in visual arts. The Empire made considerable advances in internal organisation and religious cohesion, and it had more than held its own against theAbbasid Caliphate. Most importantly Bulgaria had been transformed into a religious and cultural satellite of Byzantium. Much of the credit for these achievements, however, must go to Theodora and Theoktistos up to 855, and Bardas and Petronas thereafter.[42]
Michael III had no children by his wifeEudokia Dekapolitissa but was conjectured to have fathered one or two sons by his mistressEudokia Ingerina, who was married toBasil I:[43]
... ab imperatoris ipsis excubitoribus in sancti praeclari martyris Mamantis palatio neci traditur, die vigesima quarta Septembris, indictione prima, anni 6376, hora noctis tertia.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Michael (emperors)".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 359–360.Michael III Born: 9 January 840 Died: 24 September 867 | ||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Byzantine emperor 842–867 | Succeeded by |
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| Preceded by Theophilos in 830, then lapsed | Roman consul 843 | Succeeded by Lapsed, Basil I in 867 |
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