Mexico and theUnited States have a complex history, with war in the 1840s and the subsequent American acquisition of more than 50% of former Mexican territory, including Texas, Arizona, California, and New Mexico. Pressure from Washington was one of the factors that helped force the French invaders out in the 1860s. TheMexican Revolution of the 1910s saw many refugees flee North and limited American invasions. Other tensions resulted from the seizure of American mining and oil interests. The two nations share amaritime and landborder. Several treaties have been concluded between the two nations bilaterally, such as theGadsden Purchase, and multilaterally, such as the 2019United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement, replacing the 1994NAFTA. Both are members of variousinternational organizations, including theOrganization of American States and theUnited Nations.
Since the late nineteenth century, during the regime of PresidentPorfirio Díaz (1876–1911), the two countries have had close diplomatic and economic ties. During Díaz's long presidency, U.S. businessmen acquired agricultural and mining interests in the country. The U.S. played an important role in the course of theMexican Revolution (1910–20) with direct actions of the U.S. influencing the outcome. The long border between the two countries means that peace and security in that region are important to the U.S.'s national security and international trade. The U.S. and Mexico are each other’s largest trading partners as of 2023. In 2010, Mexico's exports totaled US$309.6 billion, and almost three quarters of those purchases were made by the United States.[1] They are also closely connected demographically, with over one million U.S. citizens living in Mexico[2] and Mexico being the largest source of immigrants to the United States, with about 8-10 million Mexican immigrants in the US.[3]
The United States of America shares a unique and often complex relationship with the United Mexican States. With shared history stemming back to theTexas Revolution (1835–1836) and theMexican–American War (1846–1848), several treaties have been concluded between the two nations, most notably theGadsden Purchase, and multilaterally with Canada, theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Mexico and the United States are members of various international organizations, such as theOrganization of American States and theUnited Nations. Boundary disputes and allocation of boundary waters have been administered since 1889 by the International Boundary and Water Commission, which also maintains international dams and wastewater sanitation facilities. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades the IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, bypassed by modern social, environmental, and political issues.[5]Illegal immigration, arms sales, and drug smuggling continue to be contentious issues in 21st-century U.S.-Mexico relations.
The alliance between Mexico and the U.S. during World War II brought the two countries into a far more harmonious relationship with one another. Mexican PresidentManuel Avila Camacho met in person with bothFranklin D. Roosevelt andHarry S. Truman, helping to cement ties with the U.S. Avila Camacho was not a leader in the Mexican Revolution himself, and held opinions that were pro-business and pro-religious that were more congenial to the U.S. while he maintained revolutionary rhetoric. During Avila Camacho's visit with Truman near the centenary of theMexican–American War, Truman returned some of the Mexican banners captured by the United States in the conflict and praised the military cadets who died defending Mexico City during the invasion.[6]
For bilateral relations between the U.S. and Mexico, the end of World War II meant decreased U.S. demand for Mexican labor via the guest-workerBracero Program and for Mexican raw materials to fuel a major war. For Mexican laborers and Mexican exporters, there were fewer economic opportunities. However, while at the same time, the government's coffers were full and aided post-war industrialization.[7] In 1946, the dominant political party changed its name to theInstitutional Revolutionary Party, and while maintaining revolutionary rhetoric, it in fact embarked on industrialization that straddled the line between nationalist and pro-business policies. Mexico supported U.S. policies in theCold War and did not challenge U.S. intervention in Guatemala that ousted leftist presidentJacobo Arbenz.[8]
Under Mexican presidentAdolfo López Mateos, the U.S. and Mexico concluded a treaty on January 14, 1964, to resolve theChamizal dispute over the boundary between the two countries, with the U.S. ceding the disputed territory.[9] TheBoundary Treaty of 1970 resolved further issues between the two countries. Since then, jurisdictional issues regardingwater rights in theRio Grande Valley have continued to cause tension between farmers on both sides of the border, according to Mexican political scientistArmand Peschard-Sverdrup.[10][11]
Mexico, the United States, and Canada signed theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 to eliminate barriers to trade and investment.
After securing the NAFTA treaty that integrated the Mexican and American economies,President Bill Clinton faced yet another foreign crisis in early 1995. TheMexican peso began to fall sharply and threatened the collapse of theMexican economy. Clinton feared that a collapse would hurt the United States because of their close economic ties. He proposed a plan to address the financial crisis in Mexico, but many in Congress, fearing that constituents would not favor aid money to Mexico, rejected the plan. In response, Clinton used executive authority to create a $20 billion loan package for Mexico to restore international confidence in the Mexican economy. The loan went through, and Mexico completed its loan payments to the United States in January 1997, three years ahead of schedule. However, issues such asdrug smuggling and immigration continued to strain relations.[12]
In 2017, 47% of illegal immigrants in the United States originate from Mexico.[13] The United States has built abarrier on much of its border with Mexico.[14] In recent years, the majority crossing from Mexico into the United States have been from Central America.[15]
Weapons recovered by Mexican military inNaco, Sonora, Mexico on November 20, 2009. They include weapons bought two weeks earlier by an Operation Fast and Furious suspect.[16]
The US is the largest source of illicit traffic of weapons traffic to Mexico. Many of the traceable weapons come from American weapons markets and festivals that do not have regulations for the buyers, and there is a geographic coincidence between the supposed American origin of the firearms and the places where these weapons are seized, mainly in the Northern Mexican states.[17] Firearms that make their way to Mexico come from the American civilian market.[18][19] Grenades are also smuggled from the US to Mexico.[20] In an effort to control the smuggling of firearms, the U.S. government is assisting Mexico with technology, equipment, and training.[21]Project Gunrunner was one such efforts between the U.S. and Mexico to collaborate in tracing Mexican guns which were manufactured in or imported legally to the U.S.[22]
In 2015, Official reports of the U.S. government and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and explosives (ATF) revealed that Mexican cartels improved their firearm power over that last years, and that 70% of their weapons come from the U.S.[23]
The AmericanATF'sProject Gunrunner has as its stated purpose the stoppage of the selling and exportation of guns from the United States into Mexico, to deny Mexican drug cartels the firearms considered "tools of the trade".[24] However, in February 2011, it brought about a scandal when the project was accused of accomplishing the opposite by ATF permitting and facilitating "straw purchase" firearm sales to traffickers, and allowing the guns to "walk" and be transported to Mexico. Several of the guns sold under the Project Gunrunner were recovered from crime scenes in Arizona and at crime scenes throughout Mexico.[25]
Mexico was not high on the priorities of the Obama Administration, but slow progress was made on security issues.[26]
As of 2013, Mexican students formed the 9th largest group ofinternational students studying in the United States, representing 1.7% of all foreigners pursuing higher education in the U.S.[27]
The four-year term of PresidentDonald Trump, who had provoked the ire of the Mexican government through threats against companies who invest in Mexico instead of the U.S., and his claims that he would construct aborder wall and force Mexico to fund its construction, caused a decline in the relations of the two countries in the late 2010s.
A 2017 survey conducted by thePew Research Center showed 65% of Mexicans had a negative view of the US, with only 30% having a positive view.[28] This constituted a significant and abrupt drop from 2015, before the2016 United States presidential election, when 67% of Mexicans had a positive view of the United States.[29] The same study also showed only 5% of Mexicans had confidence in the then US leader, President Donald Trump,[30] with 93% having no confidence in him.[31] Similarly, a poll by YouGov showed that less than one in four Americans have a positive image of Mexico.[32] Mexican visits to the US saw a 3% decrease under Trump's first term in office.[33]
The border between Mexico and the United States spans four U.S. states and six Mexican states, and has over twenty commercial crossings.
Peña Nieto listed ten goals he would seek in NAFTA negotiations, notably safeguarding the free flow of remittances, which amount to about $25 billion per year.[38] In August 2018, Mexico and the United States reached a bilateral agreement on a revamped NAFTA trade deal, including provisions to boost automobile production in the U.S.[39]
In June 2019, a promise of a stricter Mexican asylum program and security tightening to slow the traffic of illegal immigrants into the US averted a possible tariff war between the two countries.[40] The US had threatened a 5% import tariff on all Mexican goods.
In April 2020, Mexico closed a plant run by an American company for refusing to sellventilators to Mexican hospitals during theCOVID-19 pandemic.[41] The firm had operated its plant under the argument it provided an "essential" service, when most non-essential plants were closed.[42] Baja California GovernorJaime Bonilla Valdez ordered the factory closed, because it was providing no essential service to Mexicans. He said the company contacted Mexico's Foreign Relations Secretary and the American ambassador to prevent the closure order, but that he did not cave in to pressure.[41] On July 7, 2020, President Lopez Obrador visited Washington, D.C., and met with Trump following the signing of theUnited States–Mexico–Canada Agreement trade deal.[43]
In late 2020, multiple human rights groups joined a whistleblower to accuse aprivate-owned U.S. immigration detention center inGeorgia offorcible sterilization of women. The reports claimed a doctor conducted unauthorized medical procedures on women detained by theU.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).[44][45] Some international organizations have characterized this forced sterilization asgenocide.[46][47] In September 2020, Mexico demanded more information from US authorities on procedures performed on migrants in these facilities, after allegations that six Mexican women were sterilized without their consent. Another woman said she had undergone a gynecological operation, although there was nothing in her detention file to support that she had agreed to the procedure.[48]
In October 2020, retiredSecretary of National DefenseSalvador Cienfuegos was arrested by U.S. officials atLos Angeles International Airport on alleged drug and money-laundering charges.[49][50] General Cienfuegos's arrest infuriated President Obrador, who was particularly riled that Mexican officials had not been informed about the investigation into the general.[51] Cienfuegos was cleared of all charges on January 14, 2021, and Obrador said the accusations against him was politically motivated.[52] TheU.S. Justice Department threatened to restart prosecution if Mexico didn't prosecute him.[53]
On February 25, 2021, it was announced that through the Mérida Initiative,the United States andMexico have forged a partnership to combat transnational organized crime and drug trafficking while strengthening human rights and the rule of law. Mérida promotes greater cooperation between U.S. and Mexican law enforcement, prosecutors and judges as they share best practices and expand capabilities to trackcriminals,drugs,weapons and money to disrupt the business model of transnational criminal organizations.[54]
In March, theBiden administration confirmed it would not be sharing its COVID-19 vaccines with Mexico, according to White House press secretaryJen Psaki ahead of Biden's first bilateral meeting with Mexican PresidentAndrés Manuel López Obrador. "The president has made clear that he is focused on ensuring vaccines are accessible to every American." When Biden took office, Mexico had sought more cooperation with the US to increase Mexico's access to COVID-19 vaccine supplies.[55]
In May, US regulators banned Mexican airlines from expanding new service or routes in the country. The FAA claimed there were "several areas" where the country did not meet aviation standards. President Obrador stated, "We have been complying with all the requirements. We feel that this decision should not be carried out." Further stating the move appeared to help US airlines. "They are the ones who benefit, and the national airlines could be harmed." As Mexico's airlines focused on domestic flights, the US ban was expected to have less impact.[56]
In July 2021, President López Obrador blamed theUS embargo against Cuba for contributing to the unrest in Cuba. The foreign ministry sent two navy ships with food and medical supplies to assist Cuba.[57] In September 2021, Mexico sued US-based gunmakers in Smith & Wesson Brands, Inc. v. Mexico for trafficking guns into the country. The lawsuit stated that guns from America are more likely to kill Mexican citizens than American citizens. US laws, however, protect gun makers from civil liability and prevent victims from suing manufacturers.[58][59]
In January 2023, President Joe Biden traveled to Mexico to attend theNorth American Leaders' Summit in Mexico City.[60] In April 2023, Mexico's PresidentAndres Manuel Lopez Obrador said during a news conference that Mexico would not tolerate any spying on his government by the United States, which had resulted in leaks being published by the Washington Post.[61]
In 2023, Republican members of the US Congress threatened to invade Mexico to stop cartels,[62][63] but was noted by others as attempted resource extraction.[64] Mexican President Obrador has stated that "We are not going to permit any foreign government to intervene in our territory, much less that a government's armed forces..."[65]
In 2024, President Obrador proposed sweeping changes to the government of the country, including the judiciary. In August several US senators sent a letter to the president expressing concerns about the proposed changes, and US Ambassador Ken Salazar openly criticized the changes, prompting Obrador to "pause" relations with the US.[66]
The CIA has maintained a drone program in Mexico and run operations to search for those involved in drug cartels.[67][68] Sheinbaum has described the drone program as a collaboration.[69][70]
During his presidential campaign, Trump threatened to impose 25% tariffs on all Mexican goods unless Mexico stopped the flow of immigrants into the United States. The Mexican government has signaled its intention to tackle trade restrictions.[71]
During the second Trump Administration, the CIA plans to expand its role fighting drug cartels in Mexico through intelligence sharing and local training.[72]
On March 4, 2025, the United States imposed 25% tariffs on Mexican goods. On March 6, PresidentDonald Trump delayed tariffs on goods compliant with theUnited States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA)—accounting for approximately 50% of imports from Mexico.[73] Although the exemption was expected to end on April 2, the U.S. said it would continue indefinitely.[74]
Trump said the tariffs are intended to reduce the U.S. trade deficit with Mexico, force the country to secure its border with the U.S. againstillegal immigration and the smuggling offentanyl, and encourage domestic manufacturing in the United States.[75] Theopioid crisis in the United States is largely fueled by drugs smuggled from Mexico; approximately 98% of fentanyl entering the U.S. comes from Mexico.[76] In 2021 and 2022, during the worst years of the opioid epidemic, over 100,000 people in the U.S. died annually from drug overdoses.[77] Trump launched a process to designateMexican drug cartels and other criminal organizations asforeign terrorist organizations.[77] He also threatened U.S. military intervention against cartels in Mexico which Sheinbaum claims to have rejected.[77][78][79][80]
In April 2025, Trump threatened tariffs and sanctions against Mexico over its failure to meet water delivery obligations under the1944 U.S.-Mexico Water Treaty. With the current five-year cycle ending in October, Mexico had delivered less than 30% of the required 1.75 million acre-feet, prompting Trump to accuse it of “stealing water from Texas farmers”.[81] Mexican PresidentClaudia Sheinbaum citedsevere drought and affirmed Mexico was complying “as water is available.” Mexico proposed immediate deliveries, including 122,000 acre-feet, and discussions with U.S. officials followed.[82] As Donald Trump rattles the global economy with punitive tariffs, nearly two-thirds of Mexicans surveyed in May 2025 said their country should trade more with China than the United States, according to the monthly LatAm Pulse survey conducted by AtlasIntel for Bloomberg News.[83]
Mexican lawsuit against U.S. weapons manufacturers tossed
On June 5, 2025, theSupreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) ruled unanimously that claims within aMexican Government lawsuit brought against 7 major Americangun manufacturers were "too tenuous to try to hold the companiesliable for guns eventually being used in murders and robberies." The lawsuit filed by the Mexican Government alleged the manufacturers had not done enough to prevent thefirearms from reaching thedrug cartels and other criminal organizations. The court held that their ruling against the Mexican Government was "due to a lack of a convincing argument that the companies willingly allow such transactions to happen."[84]
Since 1994, the United States and Mexico have tightened their economic ties. The US is Mexico's largest trading partner. For the US, Mexico is the largest trading partner as of 2023, surpassing both Canada and China. In 2017, two-way trade between both nations amounted to US$521.5 billion.[85] The trade in goods and services totaled $677 billion in 2019. Exports to Mexico were $289 billion; imports were $388 billion.[86] The trade in goods rose to US$797.9 billion in 2023.[87]
Oil and natural gas in particular are traded between the two countries, as well as complex industrial goods such as machinery, electronics, electrical equipment, and automobiles. With the conclusion of NAFTA, Mexico has become an important investment location for US companies, with investments amounting to over $130 billion (2022).[88] Many car manufacturers have production facilities in Mexico for the American market, including major US brands such asGeneral Motors andFord, where they benefit from lower production costs.[89] US investments have changed the economic geography in Mexico, with many border cities such asCiudad Juárez orTijuana specializing in trade with the neighbouring country. Nearly 80 percent of Mexican exports are destined for the U.S.[90] Mexico has also become an important market for U.S. companies. For example, Mexico is one of the most important markets forCoca-Cola products, which is considered a reason for widespread obesity among many Mexicans.[91]
Tourism is also an important economic factor in Mexico, and Americans make up the largest group of foreign tourists in the country. Between January and April 2024, over 5 million tourists from the US visited the country.[92] Mexicans living abroad remitted over $27 billion to their home country in 2017. The majority of theseremittances come from the United States. Remittances are therefore an important economic factor, accounting for 2.6 % of economic output.[93]
The open borders have led to an increase in drug smuggling since the 1990s. According to estimates,Mexican cartels earn between 19 and 29 billion US dollars annually from drug sales in the USA.[94] The drug trade has made many cartels so rich that they have gained control over many regions of Mexico and are challenging the state's monopoly on the use of force.[95]
US-Mexico goods trade in billions of U.S. dollars (1990−2023)[87]
With the passage of theImmigration Act of 1924, which restricted immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, immigration from Mexico began to increase.[96] In the 1940s, theBracero Program became the largest recruitment program of all time and resulted in the signing of 5 million labor contracts over the next 20 years. In 2021, there were over 37 millionMexican Americans living in the U.S., nearly 10 million of whom were born in Mexico.[97] Most Mexican Americans live in thesouthwestern U.S. (over half in the states ofCalifornia andTexas). The movement for the emancipation of Mexican immigrant workers began in the 1950s underCésar Chávez and the civil rights movement of Mexican Americans known as theChicano Movement. A vibrant Mexican-American culture and cuisine has established itself in the USA.
Also, over half of allillegal immigrants in the U.S. were from Mexico in 2017, making securing the border with Mexico a contentious political issue in the United States.[98] However, starting in the 2010s, legal and illegal migration from Mexico decreased significantly and most illegal border crossings in the early 2020s were from migrants fromCentral America. Between 2007 and 2019, the number of Mexican migrants in the US actually fell.[99]
An increasing number of immigrants from the US are living in Mexico. Between 1.2 and 1.5 million Americans live in Mexico (2019). These include repatriated Mexican Americans, but also retirees who have chosen the country as their retirement home.[100][101]
A shared culture between Mexico and the United States is most apparent in the borderlands, with history and migration influencing this in the formerly Mexican territories of theSouthwestern United States.[102] Since the 19th century, both Mexico and the American South have had certain parallel reactions to the American North.[103]
Americanization has become more visible in Mexico since the mid-20th century, though it contends with regional diversity and historical impulses against American domination,[104] which are shaped by a history starting mainly in the 19th century of economic inferiority and expansionist pressure being placed onnorthern Mexico.[105] A broader linking together ofNorth American cultures (including Canada) coinciding with economic integration has become apparent in the 21st century.[106]
Photograph of U.S. flag and welcoming banner hung over a Washington street during ceremonies in honor of visiting Mexican PresidentMiguel Alemán Valdés, 1947.
Meeting with the former President of the United StatesBill Clinton and Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto atLos Pinos, 2015.
U.S. PresidentDonald Trump and Mexican PresidentAndrés Manuel López Obrador in the Oval Office, White House, during the latter's visit in Washington, D.C., 2020.
U.S. PresidentJoe Biden and Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador in a one-on-one private meeting in Mexico City, 2023.
U.S. President Biden and Mexican PresidentClaudia Sheinbaum, November 2024.
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