Mexicans (Spanish:Mexicanos) are the citizens and nationals of theUnited Mexican States. The Mexican people have varied origins with the most spoken language beingSpanish, but many also speak languages from 68 differentIndigenous linguistic groups and other languages brought to Mexico byexpatriates or recent immigration. In 2020, 19.4% of Mexico's population identified asIndigenous.[2] There are currently about 12 million Mexican nationals residing outside Mexico, with about 11.7 million[47] living in the United States. The larger Mexicandiaspora can also include individuals that trace ancestry to Mexico andself-identify as Mexican but are not necessarilyMexican by citizenship.[48] The United States has the largest Mexican population in the world after Mexico at 10,918,205 in 2021.[3]
The modern nation of Mexico achieved independence from theSpanish Empire in 1821, after a decade-long war for independence starting in 1810; this began the process of forging a national identity that fused the cultural traits of Indigenous pre-Columbian origin with those of Spanish and African ancestry. This led to what has been termed "a peculiar form of multi-ethnic nationalism"[49] which was more invigorated and developed after theMexican Revolution when theConstitution of 1917 officially established Mexico as an indivisible pluricultural nation founded on its indigenous roots.[50][51]
Mexicano (Mexican) is derived from the wordMexico itself.[52] In the principal model to createdemonyms in Spanish, the suffix-ano is added to the name of the place of origin. However, inNahuatl language, the original demonym becomesMexica. The area that is now modern-day Mexico has cradled many predecessor civilizations, going back as far as theOlmec which influenced the latter civilizations ofTeotihuacan (200 BC to 700 AD) and the much debatedToltec people who flourished around the 10th and 12th centuries AD, and ending with the last great indigenous civilization before the Nahuatl language was a common tongue in the region of modern Central Mexico during the Aztec Empire, but after the arrival of Europeans and theSpanish Conquest, theconquest of the Aztec empire (February 1519 to 13 August 1521) the common language of the region became Spanish.[53][54]
The Spanish re-administered the land and expanded their own empire beyond the former boundaries of the Aztec, adding more territory to the Mexican sphere of influence which remained under the Spanish Crown for 300 years. It has been suggested that the name of the country is derived fromMextli or Mēxihtli, a secret name for the god of war and patron of the Mexicas,Huitzilopochtli, in which case Mēxihco means "Place where Huitzilopochtli lives".[55] Another hypothesis[56] suggests thatMēxihco derives from the Nahuatl words for "Moon" (Mētztli) and navel (xīctli). This meaning ("Place at the Center of the Moon") might then refer to Tenochtitlan's position in the middle ofLake Texcoco. The system of interconnected lakes, of which Texcoco formed the center, had the form of a rabbit, which the Mesoamericanspareidolically associated with theMoon. Still another hypothesis suggests that it is derived from Mēctli, the goddess ofmaguey.[56]
Mexico does not have a strict definition of race,[60] and Mestizo identity is influenced by culture and language.[61]
Since the word Mestizo has had different definitions through Mexico's history, precise estimates of the Mexican Mestizo population are impossible. According to theEncyclopædia Britannica, about three-fifths of the Mexican population is Mestizo.[62] A culture-based criteria estimates the percentage of Mestizos as high as 90%.[63]
In certain areas of Mexico the word Mestizo has a different meaning: in the Yucatán peninsula it has been used to refer to theMaya-speaking populations living in traditional communities, because during thecaste war of the late 19th century those Maya who did not join the rebellion were classified as Mestizos[64] whereas in the state of Chiapas the word "Ladino" is used instead of "mestizo".[65]
Detractors of the Mestizo ideology have described it as delegitimizing the role of race in Mexico and perpetuating the misconception that racism does not exist in the country.[66][67]
Europeans began arriving in Mexico during theSpanish conquest of the Aztec Empire; while during the colonial period most European immigration was Spanish, in the 19th and 20th centuries European and European-derived populations from other countries immigrated to the country in significant numbers.[68]
Estimates of Mexico's white population differ greatly in both methodology and definitions. TheWorld Factbook estimated Mexico's European population at less than 10% in 2012.[69]
The 2003General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples recognizes 62indigenous languages as "national languages" which have the same validity as Spanish in all territories in which they are spoken.[70] The recognition of indigenous languages and the protection of indigenous cultures is granted not only to the ethnic groups indigenous to modern-day Mexican territory, but also to other North American indigenous groups that migrated to Mexico from theUnited States, such as theKikapú[71] in the 19th century and those who immigrated fromGuatemala in the 1980s.[72] The category ofindigena (indigenous) in Mexico has been defined based on different criteria through history; this means that the percentage of the Mexican population defined as "indigenous" varies according to the definition applied. It can be defined narrowly according to linguistic criteria including only persons that speak an indigenous language. Based on this criterion, approximately 5.4% of the population is Indigenous.[73] Nonetheless, activists for the rights of indigenous peoples have referred to the usage of this criterion for census purposes as "statistical genocide".[74][75]
Other surveys made by the Mexican government do count as Indigenous all persons who speak an indigenous language and persons who neither speak indigenous languages nor live in indigenous communities but self-identify as Indigenous. According to this criterion, theNational Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples (Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, or CDI in Spanish) and theINEGI (Mexico's National Institute of Statistics and Geography), stated that there are 15.7 million indigenous people in Mexico of many different ethnic groups,[76] which constitute 14.9% of the population in the country.[a] According to the latest intercensal survey carried out by the Mexican government in 2015, Indigenous people make up 21.5% of Mexico's population. In this occasion, people who self-identified as "Indigenous" and people who self-identified as "partially Indigenous" were classified in the "Indigenous" category altogether.[79][80] In the 2020 Mexican census 19.4% of the country's population self-identified as indigenous[2] and 9.36% were reported to live in Indigenous households.[81]
The absolute indigenous population is growing, but at a slower rate than the rest of the population so that the percentage of indigenous peoples is nonetheless falling.[73][82][83] The majority of the indigenous population is concentrated in the central-southern and south-eastern states, with the majority of the indigenous population living in rural areas. Some indigenous communities have a degree of autonomy under the legislation of"usos y costumbres" (usages and customs), which allows them to regulate some internal issues undercustomary law.
Afro-Mexicans are an ethnic group that predominate in certain areas of Mexico such as theCosta Chica of Oaxaca and theCosta Chica of Guerrero, Veracruz (e.g.Yanga) and in some towns in northern Mexico, mainly inMúzquiz Municipality, Coahuila. The existence of individuals of African descent in Mexico has its origins in the slave trade that took place during colonial times and that did not end until 1829. Historically, the presence of this ethnic group within the country has been difficult to assess for a number of reasons: their small numbers, heavy intermarriage with other ethnic groups, and Mexico's tradition of defining itself as a Mestizo society or mixing of European and indigenous only.[86] Nowadays this ethnic group also includes recent immigrants from Africa, the Caribbean and elsewhere in the Americas.[87]
The majority of Mexico's Afro-descendants areAfromestizos, i.e. "mixed-race". According to the intercensal survey carried out in 2015, 1.2% of the population self-identified as Afro-Mexican[88] with 64.9% (896,829) of them also identifying as indigenous and 9.3% being speakers ofindigenous languages.[79] In the 2020 census survey carried out by the Mexican government, Afro-Mexicans were reported to make up 2.04% of the country's population.[2]
A Jewish, specificallySephardic, population has existed in Mexico since the start of the Spanish invasion and occupation of Mexico. The current Jewish population in Mexico mostly consists of those who have descended from immigrants from the 19th and early 20th centuries with nationwide totals estimated between 80,000 and 90,000, about 75% of whom are in Mexico City.[89][90] The exact numbers are not known. One main source for figures is theComité Central Israelita in Mexico City but its contact is limited toOrthodox andConservative congregations with no contact with Jews that may be affiliated with theReform movement or those who consider themselves secular. The Mexican government census lists religion but its categories are confusing, confusing those of some Protestant sects which practice Judaic rituals with Jewish groups. There is also controversy as to whether to count thosecrypto-Jews who have converted (back) to Judaism.[90] Sixty-two percent of the population over fifteen is married, three percent divorced and four percent widowed. However, younger Jewish women are more likely to be employed outside the home (only 18% of women are housewives) and fertility rates are dropping from 3.5 children of women over 65 to 2.7 for the overall population now. There is a low level of intermarriage with the general Mexican population, with only 3.1% of marriages being mixed.[89] Although the Jewish community is less than one percent of Mexico's total population, Mexico is one of the few countries whose Jewish population is expected to grow.[91][92]
German Mexicans (German:Deutschmexikaner[93] orDeutsch-Mexikanisch, Spanish:germano-mexicano oralemán-mexicano) are Mexicans ofGerman descent or origin.
Most ethnic Germans arrived in Mexico during the mid-to-late 19th century, spurred by government policies ofPorfirio Díaz. Although a good number of them took advantage of the liberal policies then valid in Mexico and went into merchant, industrial and educational ventures, others arrived with no or limited capital, as employees or farmers.[94] Most settled in Mexico City, Veracruz, Yucatán, andPuebla. Significant numbers of German immigrants also arrived during and after the First and Second World Wars. ThePlautdietsch language is also spoken by theMexican Mennonites, descendants of German and Dutch immigrants in the states ofChihuahua,Durango,Zacatecas andAguascalientes. Other German towns lie in the states ofNuevo León,Jalisco,Sinaloa,Yucatán,Chiapas,Quintana Roo, and other parts of Puebla, where the German culture and language have been preserved to different extents.
The German Mexican community has largely integrated into Mexican society as a whole whilst retaining some cultural traits and in turn exerted cultural and industrial influences on Mexican society. Especially after the First World War intense processes of transculturation can be observed, particularly in Mexico City,Jalisco,Nuevo León, Puebla and, notably, with theMaya inChiapas. These include social, cultural and identity aspects.[94]
The majority Mexicans who have at least partialArab descent trace their ancestry to what is nowLebanon (asLebanese Mexicans) andSyria (asSyrian Mexicans).[95][96] Immigration of Arabs in Mexico has influenced Mexican culture, in particular food, where they have introducedkibbeh,tabbouleh, and have created recipes such astacos árabes. By 1765,dates, which originated from the Middle East, were introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards. The fusion between Arab and Mexican food has highly influenced theYucatecan cuisine.[97]
Arab immigration to Mexico started in the 19th and early 20th centuries.[98]
The first wave ofRoma arrived in Mexico in the 1890s, when they came to the Americas fromHungary,Poland andRussia and mainly settled in the United States and Brazil, but also in Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Uruguay and Venezuela. There are Romani communities in the cities of Mexico City, Veracruz, Puebla, Guadalajara and Monterrey. There is also a large Romani community in San Luís Potosí.[100]
Asian immigration began with the arrival ofFilipinos to Mexico during the colonial period. Between 1565 and 1815, many Filipinos and Mexicans sailed back and forth between the two countries as crews, enslaved people, adventurers, and soldiers inManila galleons as part of Spain's trade network. Asian people who werebrought to Mexico as slaves were called "Chino" (Chinese), although they were of diverse origins from many different parts of Asia.[101][102][103][104] A notable example isCatarina de San Juan (Mirra), a young woman from India who was enslaved and eventually brought to New Spain, where she was briefly revered as a saint.
Later groups of Asians, predominantly Chinese, became Mexico's fastest-growing immigrant group from the 1880s to the 1920s, growing from about 1,500 in 1895 to more than 20,000 in 1910.[107]
TheViceroyalty of New Spain conducted the country's first census in 1793. Only part of the original dataset survives, thus most of what is known of it comes from references made by researchers for their own works. More than a century would pass until the Mexican government conducted a new racial census in 1921.[108]
New Spain in 1819 with the boundaries established at theAdams-Onís Treaty
Also known as the "Revillagigedo census" due to its creation being ordered by the Count of the same name, this census was Mexico's (then known as theViceroyalty of New Spain) first nationwide population census. Most of its original datasets have been lost, thus most of what is now known about it has been reconstructed from citations made by academics who had access to the census data. Reconstructions of this data varies. Europeans ranged from 18% to 22% of New Spain's population, Mestizos ranged from 21% to 25%, Amerindians ranged from 51% to 61% and Africans being between 6,000 and 10,000. The estimations given for the total population range from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354.[109]
The new constitution was approved on 5 February 1917. This picture shows the Constituent Congress of 1917 swearing fealty to the new Constitution.
Made right after the consummation of the Mexican revolution, the 1921 census was in part an attempt to unite all Mexicans under a single national identity. The 1921 census' results regarding race assert that 59.3% of the Mexican population self-identified as Mestizo, 29.1% as Indigenous and 9.8% as White. This was used to promote the "mestizaje" ideology.[110]
Since the end of theMexican Revolution, the official identity promoted by the government for non-indigenous Mexicans has been the Mestizo one (a mix of European and indigenous culture and heritage),[108] established with the original intent of eliminating divisions and creating a unified identity that would allow Mexico to modernize and integrate with the international community.Racism in Mexico and other forms of discrimination continue playing a role in everyday social interactions.[108][111][112][undue weight? –discuss] According to a 2020 survey, 19.4% of Mexico's population self-identify as Indigenous, and 2.04% self-identify as Afro-Mexican.[113][114] There is no definitive census that quantifies White Mexicans, and Mexico's government does not attempt to classify peoplewhite people. White people are known asgüeros orblancos inMexican Spanish. The lack of a clear dividing line between white and mixed race Mexicans makes race fluid and subjective,[108] and the concept of "race" has a psychological foundation rather than a biological one.[111]
European physical appearance is favored in Mexican society, with lighter skin receiving more positive attention, as it is associated with higher social class, power, money, and modernity.[112] In contrast, Indigenous ancestry is often associated with having an inferior social class, as well as lower levels of education.[108][115][undue weight? –discuss]
This sectionmay betoo long to read and navigate comfortably. Considersplitting content into sub-articles,condensing it, or addingsubheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article'stalk page.(June 2025)
Genetic ancestry of Mexicans according to various sources[116]
Distribution of Admixture Estimates for Individuals from Mexico City and Quetalmahue.[117]
Genetic studies in Mexico can be divided on three groups: studies made on self-identified Mestizos, studies made on Indigenous peoples and studies made on the general Mexican population. Studies that focus on Mexicans of predominantly European descent or Afro-Mexicans have not been made. Mexicans who self-identify as Mestizos are primarily ofEuropean andNative American ancestry. The third largest component isAfrican, in coastal areas this is partly a legacy of the slavery inNew Spain[118] (200,000 black slaves). However, the authors of this study state that the majority of African ancestry in Mexicans is of North and Sub-Saharan African origin and was brought by the Spaniards themselves as a diluted part of their genetic ancestry.[119]
PCA of modern African and Eurasian human genomes. Mexicans are positioned along a cline between the 'Native American' (or 'Asian') cluster and between the European cluster.[120]
According to the average of various studies, Mexicans are on average 50% Spanish, 45% Amerindian, and 5% African. However this varies greatly by methodology and study, some point toward a greater Amerindian admixture whereas others point toward a greater Spanish admixture. Admixture varies by region, wealth, and even study. However, it can be generally assessed that Mexicans (on average) are an even mixture of Native American and Spanish with minor African contribution, with neither European or Native being more dominant in the genetic admixture.[121][122] According to these studies, Native admixture is more dominant in the Central and Southern regions of Mexico whereas Spanish admixture is more dominant in the Western and Northern regions of Mexico. Mestizos and Amerindians tend to have slightly more dominant Amerindian admixture whereas Mexicans considered White tend to have dominant European admixture.
Regional Variation of ancestry according to a study made by Ruiz-Linares in 2014, each dot represents a volunteer, with most coming from south Mexico and Mexico City.[123]Trivate for ancestry, from the same study as the image above (Ruiz-Linares in 2014).[123]
Those DNA studies on Mexicans show a significant genetic variation depending on the region analyzed, with the central region of Mexico showing a balance between indigenous and European components,[124] and the latter gradually increasing as one travels northwards and westwards, where European ancestry becomes the majority of the genetic contribution[125] up until cities located at theMexico–United States border, where studies suggest there is a significant resurgence of indigenous and African admixture. In southern Mexico there is prevalent indigenous Meso-American, but also European admixture, and a small but higher than averageAfrican genetic contributions.[126]
According to numerous studies, on average, the largest genetic component of Mexicans who self-identify as being Mestizos is indigenous, although the difference in incidence between the indigenous and European composites is relatively small, both representing well over 40% of the genetic composition of Mestizos.[127]
In two studies of Mexicans from Mexico City and the United States, researchers noted that Mexicans on average had just over half European ancestry, with Native American ancestry making up 44% of the general ancestry of Mexicans. However, Native AmericanX chromosomal ancestry exceeded 50%, and other studies found that approximately 90% of Mexicans carried a Native Americanmaternal haplogroup. The authors suggest that this is consistent with theethnogenesis ofLatinos, through intermarriages that mostly involved European men and Native American women.[128][129]
Extant research suggests that geographic location plays a more significant role on determining the genetic makeup of the average Indigenous person than cultural traits do, an example of this is the indigenous population ofTlapa in the state ofGuerrero, that despite for the most part speaking Spanish and having the same cultural customs non-indigenous Mexicans have, shows an indigenous ancestry of 95%.[130] In contrast, one study showsNahua-speaking Indigenous peoples from Coyolillo,Veracruz, having a mean European ancestry of 42% and an African ancestry of 22%.[131]
The Mestizaje ideology, which has blurred the lines of race at an institutional level has also had a significant influence in genetic studies done in Mexico:[132] As the criterion used in studies to determine if a Mexican is Mestizo or indigenous often lies in cultural traits such as the language spoken instead of racial self-identification or a phenotype-based selection, there are studies on which populations who are considered to be Indigenous per virtue of the language spoken show a higher degree of European genetic admixture than the one populations considered to be Mestizo report in other studies, while some mestizo populations, such as those in the state ofTlaxcala, have an average of over 75% Indigenous ancestry.[131][133][134] The opposite also happens, as there instances on which populations considered to be Mestizo show genetic frequencies similar to continental European peoples in the case of Mestizos from the state ofDurango[135] or toEuropean derived Americans in the case of Mestizos from the state ofJalisco.[136]
In 1991, an autosomal study was performed in Mexicans from the states of Nuevo Leon, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí, with a sample pool of 207. It found the average admixture to be 78.46% Spanish and 21.54% "Mexican Indian" (Indigenous). The data also shows younger generations having higher Native American admixture compared to older ones. In the report, the oldest generation had an averaged total of 91.14% Spanish ancestry.[137]
Mexican states by population density
A 2006 study conducted by Mexico'sNational Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN), which genotyped 104 samples, reported that mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 35.05% "Asian" (Native American), and 5.03% Black. Of the six states that participated in the Study, the state of Sonora showed the highest European ancestry being approximately 70% while the State of Guerrero presented the lowest European ancestry, at around 50%.[138] However is 2009, the same team published an updated finding, which sampled 300 Mexicans who self-identified as Mestizos, the average admixture was calculated to be 55.2% percent Native American, 41.8% European, 2% African, and 0.5% Asian.[127]
In 2014, researchers looked through approximately twenty previous studies done on the admixture of Mexicans. Their general conclusion was the average Mexican is more Native American than European.[139]
Subsequently, in 2015, a separate team of researchers performed a meta-analysis, incorporating the findings of many previous studies with additional research. This comprehensive analysis revealed a genetic composition with an average of 62% Native American, 32% European, and 6% African.[140]
A 2017 study reported highly variable ancestry in Mexican Mestizos, ranging from 70.2%–46.2% Amerindian; 25.4%–48.7% European; 2.8%–5.2% African (Martínez-Cortés et al., 2017).[141]
In 2014, a genetic study gave results of 56.0% Amerindian; 37.0% European; and 5.0% African for Mexican Mestizos.[123] The authors reported similar findings of geographical variation, as in other studies. Native American ancestry is lower in northerly regions of Mexico, and higher in the south. African ancestry is generally quite low across most of Mexico, with the exception of a small number of coastal communities.
Mexican states by total number of inhabitants
An autosomal study performed in Mestizos from Mexico's three largest cities reported that Mestizos from Mexico city had an average ancestry of 50% European, 5% African and 49% Amerindian whereas Mestizos from the cities of Monterrey and Guadalajara had both a European ancestry of 60% and an indigenous ancestry of 40% in average.[142]
An autosomal study performed in Mexico City reported that Mexican mestizos' mean ancestry was 57% European, 40% Amerindian and 3% African. However, the sample pool was extremely low at only 19. Researchers Francisco Mauro Salzano and Mónica Sans referred to it as an "anomalous value" in their report mentioned earlier.[117][139]
Additional studies suggests a tendency relating a higher European admixture with a higher socioeconomic status and a higher Amerindian ancestry with a lower socioeconomic status: a study made exclusively on low income Mestizos residing in Mexico City found the mean admixture to be 0.590, 0.348, and 0.162 for Amerindian, European and African respectively whereas the European admixture increased to an average of around 70% on mestizos belonging to a higher socioeconomical level.[143]
An autosomal genetic study which included the states ofMexico,Morelos,Puebla,Queretaro andMexico City determined the average ancestry of the central region of Mexico to be 52% European 39% Amerindian, and 9% African.[144]
An autosomal genetic study performed in the town ofMetztitlan in thestate of Hidalgo reported that the average genetic ancestry of the town's autochthonous (indigenous) population was 64% Amerindian, 25% European and 11% African.[145]
Depending on the region, some may have small traces of Asian admixture due to the thousands of Filipinos andChinos (Asian slaves of diverse origins, not just Chinese) that arrived on theNao de China. More recent Asian immigration (specifically Chinese) may help explain the comparatively high Asian contribution in Northwest Mexico (i.e., Sonora).[127]
A study published in the journalHuman Immunology analyzed the genetic ancestry of themestizo Mexican population based on HLAhaplotypes, estimating the overall contribution of European, Amerindian, and African ancestry to the self-identified mestizo population in each state.[133] Indigenous ancestry predominated among the sample in 22 out of the 30 states included in the study, while European ancestry was predominant in 8 states, all in the north or west of the country. The study found significantly higher levels of Indigenous and African ancestry than most other studies, especially in states in Northern Mexico, representing an outlier in this regard. The results for each state are shown in this table.
Etiological studies are genetic studies on which volunteers suffer of a specific health condition/disease, as diseases tend to manifest on higher frequencies on people with a determinated genetic ancestry, the results of said studies are not accurate to represent the genetics of the population said volunteers belong to as a whole
56.0% Amerindian; 38% European; 6% African for northeast de México (Martínez-Fierro et al., 2009).[178]
61.0% Amerindian; 37.0% European; 2.0% African for Ciudad de México (Kosoy et al., 2009).[179]
65.0% Amerindian; 30.0% European; 5.0% African for Ciudad de México.[180]
Studies of different phenotypical traits (hair color, hair shape, eye color etc.) in Mexicans have been conducted to document racial and ethnic inequality. The results of these studies refute misconceptions regarding Mexico's population, showing that Mexico is a diverse country, where any color or type of trait can be found with ease in any region.[181][original research?]
One study published by theAmerican Sociological Association found the differences in the frequencies of phenotypical traits such asblond hair between the population of the Northern regions of Mexico (where this trait has a frequency of 22.3%–23.9%) and the population of the Central regions of Mexico (with a frequency of 18.9%–21.3%).[182][failed verification]
Most samples (approximately 90%) came from Mexico City and the southern states of Mexico, meaning that the northern and western states of Mexico were underrepresented, as about45% of Mexico's population lives there.[123]
Results of the survey conducted by the CONAPRED in 2010.[183]
Nationwide surveys sponsored by the Mexican government that quantify the percentage of the different skin tones present on Mexico's population have been made, the first in 2010 by theCONAPRED (Mexico's National Bureau for Prevention of Discrimination)[184] and the second in 2017 by theINEGI (Mexico's National Institute of Statistics).[185][186] Each study used a different color palette, in the case of CONAPRED's study it was a palette with 9 color choices developed by the institute itself whereas in the case of the INEGI study the palette used was the palette for the PERLA (Latin American Race and Ethnicity Project) with 11 color categories.
Skin Type
Percentage(inegi 2017)
A
0.2%
B
0.5%
C
1.0%
D
3.0%
E
2.7%
F
13.0%
G
30.0%
H
37.4%
I
5.2%
J
4.9%
K
2.1%
Mexico's government has downplayed the racial connotations of these studies. The 2017 study, besides skin color, also accounted for different socioeconomic factors such as educational achievements and occupational profiles, with media outlets discussing how these findings related tosystemic racism,white privilege, andcolonialism.[187][188][non-primary source needed]
In 2018, the new edition of the ENADIS was published, this time being a joint effort by the CONAPRED and the INEGI with collaboration of theUNAM, theCONACyT and theCNDH.[189] Like its 2010 antecessor, it surveyed Mexican citizens about topics related to discrimination and collected data related to phenotype and ethnic self-identification. It concluded that Mexico is still a fairly conservative country regarding minority groups such as religious minorities, ethnic minorities, foreigners, members of the LGBT collective etc. albeit there are pronounced regional differences, with states in the south-center regions of Mexico having in general notoriously higher discrimination rates towards the aforementioned social groups than the ones states in the western-north regions have.[189] For the collecting of data related to skin color the palette used was again the PERLA one. This time 11.4% of Mexicans were reported to have the "darkest skin tones (A–E)", 59.2% to have "medium skin tones (F–G)" and 29.4% to have the "lightest skin tones (H–K)".[189] The reason for the huge difference regarding the reported percentages of Mexicans with light skin (around 18% lower) and medium skin (around 16% higher) in the relation to previous nationwide surveys lies in the fact that the ENADIS 2017 prioritized the surveying of Mexicans from "vulnerable groups" which among other measures meant that states with known high numbers of people from said groups surveyed more people.[190] In 2023, the 2022 edition of the ENADIS by the INEGI was published, this time 21.1% of Mexicans reported to belong to the "darkest skin tones" (A-E), 49.7% were reported to belong to "medium skin tones (F-G)" and 29.2% were reported to belong to the group of the "lightest skin tones (H-K)".[191] On a similar manner to its predecessor, the survey was conducted with special attention on disadvantaged social groups, meaning that states with a known higher presence of such groups conducted more surveys proportionally.[192]
The following table from a study published in 2018 shows the frequencies of different blood types in various Mexican regions.[193] Prior to the colonial period, Mexico's Amerindian/Indigenous population only had the "O" blood type, which was also present in European colonizers. Blood type does not determine race or ethnicity, and it is not reliable for determining an individual's ancestry.[194][195]
Map for the year 2000 of the indigenous languages of Mexico having more than 100,000 speakers
Mexicans are linguistically diverse, with many speaking European languages as well as variousIndigenous Mexican Languages. Spanish is spoken by approximately 92.17% of Mexicans as their first language making them the largest Spanish speaking group in the world[197] followed byColombia (45,273,925), Spain (41,063,259)[198] andArgentina (40,134,425). The most numerous indigenous language spoken by Mexicans isNahuatl, which is spoken by 1.7% of the population in Mexico over the age of 5.[199] Approximately 7,364,645 Mexicans (6.1% of the population) speak an indigenous language according to the 2020 Mexican Census.[200] There are also Mexicans living abroad which speak indigenous languages mostly in the United States but their number is unknown.[201] Although the great majority speak Spanish, the second most populous language among Mexicans isEnglish due to the regional proximity of the United States which calls for a bilingual relationship in order to conduct business and trade as well as the migration of Mexicans into that country who adopt it as a second language.[202]
Mexican Spanish is distinct in dialect, tone and syntax to thePeninsular Spanish spoken in Spain. It contains a large amount of loan words from indigenous languages, mostly from theNahuatl language such as:chocolate,tomate,mezquite,chile, andcoyote.[203]
Mexico has no officialde jure language,[204] but as of 2003 it recognizes 68 indigenous Amerindian languages as "national languages" along with Spanish which are protected under Mexican National law giving indigenous peoples the entitlement to request public services and documents in their native languages.[205] The law also includes other Amerindian languages regardless of origin, that is, it includes the Amerindian languages of other ethnic groups that are non-native to the Mexican national territory. As such, Mexico'sNational Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples recognizes the language of theKickapoo who immigrated from the United States,[206] and recognizes the languages ofGuatemalan Amerindian refugees.[207]
Mexican culture reflects the complexity of thecountry's history through the blending of indigenous cultures and theculture of Spain, imparted during Spain's 300-year colonization of Mexico. Exogenous cultural elements mainly from the United States have been incorporated into Mexican culture.[208]
The Porfirian era (elPorfiriato), in the last quarter of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century, was marked by economic progress and peace. After four decades of civil unrest and war, Mexico saw the development of philosophy and the arts, promoted by President Díaz himself. Since that time, as accentuated during theMexican Revolution, cultural identity has had its foundation in themestizaje, of which the indigenous (i.e. Amerindian) element is the core. In light of the various ethnicities that formed the Mexican people,José Vasconcelos in his publicationLa Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race) (1925) defined Mexico to be the melting pot of all races (thus extending the definition of themestizo) not only biologically but culturally as well.[209] This exalting ofmestizaje was a revolutionary idea that sharply contrasted with the idea of a superior pure race prevalent in Europe at the time.[210]
The literature of Mexico has its antecedents in the literatures of the indigenous settlements of Mesoamerica. The most well known prehispanic poet isNezahualcoyotl. Modern Mexican literature was influenced by the concepts of the Spanish colonialization ofMesoamerica. Outstanding writers and poets from the Spanish period includeJuan Ruiz de Alarcón andJuana Inés de la Cruz.[211]
In light of the various ethnicities that formed the Mexican people,José Vasconcelos in his publicationLa Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race) (1925) defined Mexico to be the melting pot of all races, biologically as well as culturally.[209]
TheNational Autonomous University of Mexico was officially established in 1910,[213] and the university become one of the most important institutes of higher learning in Mexico.[214] UNAM provides world class education in science, medicine, and engineering.[215] Many scientific institutes and new institutes of higher learning, such asNational Polytechnic Institute (founded in 1936),[216] were established during the first half of the 20th century. Most of the new research institutes were created within UNAM. Twelve institutes were integrated into UNAM from 1929 to 1973.[217] In 1959, theMexican Academy of Sciences was created to coordinate scientific efforts between academics.
In 1995 the Mexican chemistMario J. Molina shared theNobel Prize in Chemistry withPaul J. Crutzen andF. Sherwood Rowland for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone.[218] Molina, an alumnus of UNAM, became the first Mexican citizen to win the Nobel Prize in science.[219]
In recent years, the largest scientific project being developed in Mexico was the construction of theLarge Millimeter Telescope (Gran Telescopio Milimétrico, GMT), the world's largest and most sensitive single-aperture telescope in its frequency range.[220] It was designed to observe regions of space obscured by stellar dust.
Mexican society enjoys a vast array of music genres, showing the diversity of Mexican culture. Traditional music includesmariachi,banda,Norteño,ranchera,cumbia, andcorridos; on an everyday basis most Mexicans listen to contemporary music such aspop, rock, etc. in both English and Spanish. Mexico has the largest media industry in Hispanic America, producing Mexican artists who are famous in Central and South America and parts of Europe, especially Spain.[221]
For the artistic relevance of many of Mexico's architectural structures, including entire sections of prehispanic and colonial cities, have been designatedWorld Heritage. The country has the first place in number of sites declared World Heritage Site byUNESCO in the Americas.[228]
TheDay of the Dead (Día de los Muertos) is an important Mexican holiday observed by Mexicans. The holiday is influenced by Mesoamerican ritual, European religion and Spanish culture.[230] The holiday traces its roots to the Aztecs and the tradition was first practiced thousands of years ago by indigenous peoples such as the Aztecs and the Toltecs.[231]
Mexico has no officialreligion, but most Mexicans declare themselves Roman Catholic.[233][46][234] Mexico is often seen as a very observant Catholic society. Most Mexicans tend to have opinions that are more in line withCatholic social teaching.[235][233][236] Mexico has been resistant toProtestant incursion partly because Protestantism in Mexico has long been associated with the United States,[236] which leads to the reinforcement of Catholicism as part of the Mexican identity.[236]
TheConstitution of 1917 imposed limitations on the church and sometimes codified state intrusion into church matters. The government does not provide financial contributions to the church, nor does the church participate in public education. However,Christmas is a national holiday and every year duringEaster and Christmas all schools in Mexico, public and private, send their students on vacation.
In 1992, Mexico lifted almost all restrictions on religion, including granting all religious groups legal status, conceding them limited property, and lifting restrictions on the number of priests in the country.[237]
TheCatholic Church is the dominant religion in Mexico, with about 80% of the population as of 2017,[232] which is the world's second largest number of Catholics, surpassed only byBrazil.[238] Movements of return and revival of the indigenousMesoamerican religions (Mexicayotl,Toltecayotl) have also appeared in recent decades.[239][240]
^Defined as persons who live in a household where an indigenous language is spoken by one of the adult family members, and or people who self identified as indigenous ("Criteria del hogar: De esta manera, se establece, que los hogares indígenas son aquellos en donde el jefe y/o el cónyuge y/o padre o madre del jefe y/o suegro o suegra del jefe hablan una lengua indígena y también aquellos que declararon pertenecer a un grupo indígena."[77] and persons who speak an indigenous language but who do not live in such a household ("Por lo antes mencionado, la Comisión Nacional Para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas de México (CDI) considera población indígena (PI) a todas las personas que forman parte de un hogar indígena, donde el jefe(a) del hogar, su cónyuge y/o alguno de los ascendientes (madre o padre, madrastra o padrastro, abuelo(a), bisabuelo(a), tatarabuelo(a), suegro(a)) declaro ser hablante de lengua indígena. Además, también incluye a personas que declararon hablar alguna lengua indígena y que no forman parte de estos hogares")[78]
^"Mexicanos residentes en España"(PDF). Instituto de los Mexicanos en el Exterior (IME).Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved19 December 2021.
^"Teotihuacan".History.com Editors. A&E Television Networks. 21 August 2018 [January 5, 2018].Archived from the original on 21 July 2021. Retrieved21 July 2021.
^Schaefer, Richard T., ed. (2008).Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. Sage. p. 900.ISBN978-1-4129-2694-2.In New Spain, there was no strict idea of race (something that continued in Mexico). The Indians that had lost their connections with their communities and had adopted different cultural elements could 'pass' and be considered mestizos. The same applied to Blacks and castas.
^Moreno Figueroa, Mónica G. (August 2016)."El archivo del estudio del racismo en México" [An Archive of the Study of Racism in Mexico].Desacatos (in Spanish) (51):92–107.Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved20 November 2020.
^"North America: Mexico: People and Society".The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved23 August 2017.mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 62%, predominantly Amerindian 21%, Amerindian 7%, other 10% (mostly European)
^"Síntesis de Resultados"(PDF). Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. 2006. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved22 December 2010.
^abJudit Bokser Liwerant."Mexico".Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia.Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved28 November 2012.
^Medina, Manuel F. (Spring 2000). "Imaging a space in between: Writing the gap between Jewish and Mexican identities in Rosa Nissan's narrative".Studies in the Literary Imagination.33 (1):93–106.ProQuest198122825.
^Velcamp, T. (May 2005). "Review:Arab Immigration in Mexico in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Assimilation and Arab Heritage by Roberto Marín-Guzmán, Zidane Zéraoui; A Century of Palestinian Immigration into Central America: A Study of Their Economic and Cultural by Roberto Marín-Guzmán".International Journal of Middle East Studies.37 (2):266–269.doi:10.1017/S0020743805232063.JSTOR3879733.
^Lerner, Victoria (1968). "Consideraciones sobre la población de la Nueva España (1793-1810): Según Humboldt y Navarro y Noriega" [Considerations on the population of New Spain (1793-1810). According to Humboldt and Navarro and Noriega].Historia Mexicana (in Spanish).17 (3):327–348.JSTOR25134694.
^Salazar-Flores, J.; Zuñiga-Chiquette, F.; Rubi-Castellanos, R.; Álvarez-Miranda, J.L.; Zetina-Hérnandez, A.; Martínez-Sevilla, V.M.; González-Andrade, F.; Corach, D.; Vullo, C.; Álvarez, J.C.; Lorente, J.A.; Sánchez-Diz, P.; Herrera, R.J.; Cerda-Flores, R.M.; Muñoz-Valle, J.F.; Rangel-Villalobos, H. (2015). "Admixture and genetic relationships of Mexican Mestizos regarding Latin American and Caribbean populations based on 13 CODIS-STRS".Homo.66 (1):44–59.doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2014.08.005.hdl:11336/15953.PMID25435058.Price, Alkes L.; Patterson, Nick; Yu, Fuli; Cox, David R.; Waliszewska, Alicja; McDonald, Gavin J.; Tandon, Arti; Schirmer, Christine; Neubauer, Julie; Bedoya, Gabriel; Duque, Constanza; Villegas, Alberto; Bortolini, Maria Catira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Gallo, Carla; Mazzotti, Guido; Tello-Ruiz, Marcela; Riba, Laura; Aguilar-Salinas, Carlos A.; Canizales-Quinteros, Samuel; Menjivar, Marta; Klitz, William; Henderson, Brian; Haiman, Christopher A.; Winkler, Cheryl; Tusie-Luna, Teresa; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés; Reich, David (June 2007)."A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations".The American Journal of Human Genetics.80 (6):1024–1036.doi:10.1086/518313.PMC1867092.PMID17503322.Price, Alkes L.; Patterson, Nick; Yu, Fuli; Cox, David R.; Waliszewska, Alicja; McDonald, Gavin J.; Tandon, Arti; Schirmer, Christine; Neubauer, Julie; Bedoya, Gabriel; Duque, Constanza; Villegas, Alberto; Bortolini, Maria Catira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Gallo, Carla; Mazzotti, Guido; Tello-Ruiz, Marcela; Riba, Laura; Aguilar-Salinas, Carlos A.; Canizales-Quinteros, Samuel; Menjivar, Marta; Klitz, William; Henderson, Brian; Haiman, Christopher A.; Winkler, Cheryl; Tusie-Luna, Teresa; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés; Reich, David (June 2007)."A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations".The American Journal of Human Genetics.80 (6):1024–1036.doi:10.1086/518313.PMC1867092.PMID17503322.
^abWang, Sijia; Ray, Nicolas; Rojas, Winston; Parra, Maria V.; Bedoya, Gabriel; Gallo, Carla; Poletti, Giovanni; Mazzotti, Guido; Hill, Kim; Hurtado, Ana M.; Camrena, Beatriz; Nicolini, Humberto; Klitz, William; Barrantes, Ramiro; Molina, Julio A.; Freimer, Nelson B.; Bortolini, Maria Cátira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Petzl-Erler, Maria L.; Tsuneto, Luiza T.; Dipierri, José E.; Alfaro, Emma L.; Bailliet, Graciela; Bianchi, Nestor O.; Llop, Elena; Rothhammer, Francisco; Excoffier, Laurent; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés (21 March 2008)."Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos".PLOS Genetics.4 (3) e1000037.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037.PMC2265669.PMID18369456.
^Salazar-Flores, J.; Zuñiga-Chiquette, F.; Rubi-Castellanos, R.; Álvarez-Miranda, J.L.; Zetina-Hérnandez, A.; Martínez-Sevilla, V.M.; González-Andrade, F.; Corach, D.; Vullo, C.; Álvarez, J.C.; Lorente, J.A.; Sánchez-Diz, P.; Herrera, R.J.; Cerda-Flores, R.M.; Muñoz-Valle, J.F.; Rangel-Villalobos, H. (2015). "Admixture and genetic relationships of Mexican Mestizos regarding Latin American and Caribbean populations based on 13 CODIS-STRS".Homo.66 (1):44–59.doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2014.08.005.hdl:11336/15953.PMID25435058.
^Price, Alkes L.; Patterson, Nick; Yu, Fuli; Cox, David R.; Waliszewska, Alicja; McDonald, Gavin J.; Tandon, Arti; Schirmer, Christine; Neubauer, Julie; Bedoya, Gabriel; Duque, Constanza; Villegas, Alberto; Bortolini, Maria Catira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Gallo, Carla; Mazzotti, Guido; Tello-Ruiz, Marcela; Riba, Laura; Aguilar-Salinas, Carlos A.; Canizales-Quinteros, Samuel; Menjivar, Marta; Klitz, William; Henderson, Brian; Haiman, Christopher A.; Winkler, Cheryl; Tusie-Luna, Teresa; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés; Reich, David (June 2007)."A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations".The American Journal of Human Genetics.80 (6):1024–1036.doi:10.1086/518313.PMC1867092.PMID17503322.
^abcdeRuiz-Linares, Andrés; Adhikari, Kaustubh; Acuña-Alonzo, Victor; Quinto-Sanchez, Mirsha; Jaramillo, Claudia; Arias, William; Fuentes, Macarena; Pizarro, María; Everardo, Paola; de Avila, Francisco; Gómez-Valdés, Jorge; León-Mimila, Paola; Hunemeier, Tábita; Ramallo, Virginia; Silva de Cerqueira, Caio C.; Burley, Mari-Wyn; Konca, Esra; de Oliveira, Marcelo Zagonel; Veronez, Mauricio Roberto; Rubio-Codina, Marta; Attanasio, Orazio; Gibbon, Sahra; Ray, Nicolas; Gallo, Carla; Poletti, Giovanni; Rosique, Javier; Schuler-Faccini, Lavinia; Salzano, Francisco M.; Bortolini, Maria-Cátira; Canizales-Quinteros, Samuel; Rothhammer, Francisco; Bedoya, Gabriel; Balding, David; Gonzalez-José, Rolando (25 September 2014)."Admixture in Latin America: Geographic Structure, Phenotypic Diversity and Self-Perception of Ancestry Based on 7,342 Individuals".PLOS Genetics.10 (9) e1004572.Bibcode:2014PLOSG..10.4572R.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572.PMC4177621.PMID25254375.
^Hernández-Gutiérrez, S.; Hernández-Franco, P.; Martínez-Tripp, S.; Ramos-Kuri, M.; Rangel-Villalobos, H. (30 June 2005). "STR data for 15 loci in a population sample from the central region of Mexico".Forensic Science International.151 (1):97–100.doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.09.080.PMID15935948.
^Cerda-Flores, Ricardo M.; Villalobos-Torres, Maria C.; Barrera-Saldaña, Hugo A.; Cortés-Prieto, Lizette M.; Barajas, Leticia O.; Rivas, Fernando; Carracedo, Angel; Zhong, Yixi; Barton, Sara A.; Chakraborty, Ranajit (2002). "Genetic admixture in three mexican mestizo populations based on D1S80 and HLA-DQA1 Loci".American Journal of Human Biology.14 (2):257–263.doi:10.1002/ajhb.10020.PMID11891937.S2CID31830084.
^Loya Méndez, Yolanda; Reyes Leal, G.; Sánchez González, A.; Portillo Reyes, V.; Reyes Ruvalcaba, D.; Bojórquez Rangel, G. (1 February 2015). "Variantes genotípicas del SNP-19 del gen de la CAPN 10 y su relación con la diabetes mellitus tipo 2 en una población de Ciudad Juárez, México" [SNP-19 genotypic variants of CAPN 10 gene and its relation to diabetes mellitus type 2 in a population of Ciudad Juarez, Mexico].Nutrición Hospitalaria (in Spanish).31 (2):744–750.doi:10.3305/nh.2015.31.2.7729.PMID25617558.S2CID196279677.
^Kumar, Satish; Bellis, Claire; Zlojutro, Mark; Melton, Phillip E.; Blangero, John; Curran, Joanne E. (7 October 2011)."Large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans suggests a reappraisal of Native American origins".BMC Evolutionary Biology.11 (1): 293.Bibcode:2011BMCEE..11..293K.doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-293.PMC3217880.PMID21978175.For mtDNA variation, some studies have measured Native American, Spanish and African contributions to Mexican and Mexican American populations, revealing 85 to 90% of mtDNA lineages are of Native American origin [53,54], with the remainder having Spanish (5–7%) or African ancestry (3–5%). Thus the observed frequency of Native American mtDNA in Mexican/Mexican Americans is higher than was expected on the basis of autosomal estimates of Native American admixture for these populations i.e. ~ 30-46%. The difference is indicative of directional mating involving preferentially immigrant men and Native American women. This type of genetic asymmetry has been observed in other populations, including Brazilian individuals of African ancestry, as the analysis of sex specific and autosomal markers has revealed evidence for substantial European admixture that was mediated mostly through men.
^Price, Alkes L.; Patterson, Nick; Yu, Fuli; Cox, David R.; Waliszewska, Alicja; McDonald, Gavin J.; Tandon, Arti; Schirmer, Christine; Neubauer, Julie; Bedoya, Gabriel; Duque, Constanza; Villegas, Alberto; Bortolini, Maria Catira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Gallo, Carla; Mazzotti, Guido; Tello-Ruiz, Marcela; Riba, Laura; Aguilar-Salinas, Carlos A.; Canizales-Quinteros, Samuel; Menjivar, Marta; Klitz, William; Henderson, Brian; Haiman, Christopher A.; Winkler, Cheryl; Tusie-Luna, Teresa; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés; Reich, David (June 2007)."A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations".The American Journal of Human Genetics.80 (6):1024–1036.doi:10.1086/518313.PMC1867092.PMID17503322.Results are reported in table 2 and indicate higher total Native American ancestry for LA Latinos and Mexicans (45% and 44%, respectively) than for Brazilians and Colombians (18% and 19%, respectively), which is in line with previous studies. We also observed uniformly higher Native American ancestry on the X chromosome (57% for LA Latinos, 54% for Mexicans, 33% for Brazilians, and 27% for Colombians), which is consistent with evidence of predominantly European patrilineal and Native American matrilineal ancestry in Latino populations.
^abBuentello-Malo L, Peñaloza-Espinosa RI, Salamanca-Gómez F, Cerda-Flores RM (2008). "Genetic admixture of eight Mexican indigenous populations: based on five polymarker, HLA-DQA1, ABO, and RH loci".American Journal of Human Biology.20 (6):647–650.doi:10.1002/ajhb.20747.PMID18770527.S2CID28766515.
^Sosa-Macías, Martha (2006). "CYP2D6Genotype and Phenotype in Amerindians of Tepehuano Origin and Mestizos of Durango, Mexico".The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology.46 (5):527–536.doi:10.1177/0091270006287586.PMID16638736.S2CID41443294.
^Cerda-Flores, Ricardo; Kshatriya, Gautam; Barton, Sara; Leal-Garza, Carlos; Garza-Chapa, Raul; Schull, William; Chakraborty, Ranajit (27 January 2014). "Genetic Structure of the Populations Migrating from SanLuis Potosi and Zacatecas to Nuevo León in Mexico".Human Biology.63 (3):309–27.JSTOR41464178.PMID2055589.
^Rodrigues de Moura, Ronald; Coelho, Antonio Victor Campos; de Queiroz Balbino, Valdir; Crovella, Sergio; Brandão, Lucas André Cavalcanti (10 September 2015). "Meta-analysis of Brazilian genetic admixture and comparison with other Latin America countries".American Journal of Human Biology.27 (5):674–680.doi:10.1002/ajhb.22714.hdl:11368/2837176.PMID25820814.
^Martínez-Cortés, Gabriela; Zúñiga-Castellanos, Rubí Alejandra; García-Aceves, Mayra Elizabeth; Salcido, Victor Hugo; Cortés-Trujillo, Irán; Rangel-Villalobos, H. (December 2017). "Genetic diversity of Mexican-Mestizo populations using 114 INDEL polymorphisms".Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series.6:e423 –e425.doi:10.1016/j.fsigss.2017.09.153.
^Cerda-Flores RM, Villalobos-Torres MC, Barrera-Saldaña HA, Cortés-Prieto LM, Barajas LO, Rivas F, Carracedo A, Zhong Y, Barton SA, Chakraborty R (2002). "Genetic admixture in three Mexican Mestizo populations based on D1S80 and HLA-DQA1 loci".American Journal of Human Biology.14 (2):257–263.doi:10.1002/ajhb.10020.PMID11891937.S2CID31830084.
^Gorostiza A, González-Martín A, Ramírez CL, Sánchez C, Barrot C, Ortega M, Huguet E, Corbella J, Gené M (2007). "Allele frequencies of the 15 AmpF/Str Identifiler loci in the population of Metztitlán (Estado de Hidalgo), México".Forensic Science International.166 (2–3):230–232.doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.12.007.PMID16436322.
^ab"In the total population sample, paternal ancestry was predominately European (64.9%), followed by Native American (30.8%) and African (4.2%). However, the European ancestry was prevalent in the north and west (66.7–95%) and, conversely, Native American ancestry increased in the center and southeast (37–50%), whereas the African ancestry was low and relatively homogeneous (2–8.8%)." (Martínez-Cortés et al., 2012).[146]
^Barquera, Rodrigo; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Arellano-Prado, Francia Paulina; Goné-Vázquez, Isis; Clayton, Stephen; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Escobedo-Ruíz, Araceli; García-Arias, Víctor Eduardo; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Rodríguez-López, Marla Estefanía; Sánchez-Fernández, María Guadalupe de Jesús; Sandoval-Sandoval, Mario J.; Gómez-Navarro, Benjamín; Zúñiga, Joaquín; Yunis, Edmond J. (1 September 2020)."Genetic diversity of HLA system in two populations from Colima, Mexico: Colima city and rural Colima".Human Immunology. Population immunogenetics of Mexican mixed ancestry populations.81 (9):513–515.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.06.004.ISSN0198-8859.PMID31208822.
^González-Medina, Liliana; Barquera, Rodrigo; Delgado-Aguirre, Héctor; Clayton, Stephen; Adalid-Sáinz, Carmen; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Pacheco-Ubaldo, Hanna; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Escareño-Montiel, Néstor; Morán-Martínez, Javier; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Lona-Sánchez, Abraham; González-Martínez, Marisela del Rocío; Jaramillo-Rodríguez, Yolanda; Salgado-Adame, Antonio (1 September 2020)."Genetic diversity of HLA system in two populations from Durango, Mexico: Durango city and rural Durango".Human Immunology. Population immunogenetics of Mexican mixed ancestry populations.81 (9):489–491.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.06.005.ISSN0198-8859.PMID31201079.
^Pantoja-Torres, Jorge Arturo; Barquera, Rodrigo; Ballesteros-Romero, Mónica; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Montiel-Hernández, Gustavo Daniel; Clayton, Stephen; Rodríguez-Rodríguez, Lidia Iris; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Goné-Vázquez, Isis; Escobedo-Ruíz, Araceli; García-Arias, Víctor Eduardo; Arellano-Prado, Francia Paulina; Rodríguez-López, Marla Estefanía; Sánchez-Fernández, María Guadalupe de Jesús (1 September 2020)."Genetic diversity of HLA system in three populations from Guanajuato, Mexico: Guanajuato City, León and rural Guanajuato".Human Immunology. Population immunogenetics of Mexican mixed ancestry populations.81 (9):510–512.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.06.002.ISSN0198-8859.PMID31204089.
^Juárez-Nicolás, Francisco; Barquera, Rodrigo; Martínez-Álvarez, Julio César; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Ortega-Yáñez, Andrea; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Clayton, Stephen; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Arrazola-García, María Araceli; Immel, Alexander; Juárez-Barreto, Vicencio; Benítez-Arvizu, Gamaliel; Vega-Martínez, María del Rosario; García-Álvarez, Raquel; Martínez-Bezies, Virginia (1 September 2020)."Genetic diversity of HLA system in a population from Guerrero, Mexico".Human Immunology. Population immunogenetics of Mexican mixed ancestry populations.81 (9):550–552.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.05.015.ISSN0198-8859.PMID31174910.
^Barquera, Rodrigo; Martínez-Álvarez, Julio César; Trejo-Ordoz, Alondra Victoria; Pavón-Vargas, María de los Ángeles; Vega-Martínez, María del Rosario; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Clayton, Stephen; Ortega-Yáñez, Andrea; Juárez-Cortés, Eva Dolores; Juárez-Nicolás, Francisco; López-Gil, Concepción; Immel, Alexander; Arrazola-García, María Araceli; Juárez-Barreto, Vicencio; Benítez-Arvizu, Gamaliel (1 September 2020)."Genetic diversity of HLA system in two populations from Hidalgo, Mexico: Pachuca and rural Hidalgo".Human Immunology. Population immunogenetics of Mexican mixed ancestry populations.81 (9):535–538.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.07.293.ISSN0198-8859.PMID31345694.
^Barquera, Rodrigo; Martínez-Álvarez, Julio César; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Juárez-Nicolás, Francisco; Arriaga-Perea, Agustín Jericó; Vega-Martínez, María Del Rosario; Ortega-Yáñez, Andrea; Benítez-Arvizu, Gamaliel; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Clayton, Stephen; Juárez-Cortés, Eva Dolores; López-Gil, Concepción; García-Álvarez, Raquel; Arrazola-García, María Araceli (September 2020). "Genetic diversity of HLA system in six populations from Mexico City Metropolitan Area, Mexico: Mexico City North, Mexico City South, Mexico City East, Mexico City West, Mexico City Center and rural Mexico City".Human Immunology.81 (9):539–543.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.07.297.ISSN1879-1166.PMID31353130.
^Ballesteros-Romero, Mónica; Barquera, Rodrigo; Rodríguez-López, Marla Estefanía; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Goné-Vázquez, Isis; Clayton, Stephen; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Escobedo-Ruíz, Araceli; Pantoja-Torres, Jorge Arturo; García-Arias, Víctor Eduardo; Arellano-Prado, Francia Paulina; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Sánchez-Fernández, María Guadalupe de Jesús; Sandoval-Sandoval, Mario J.; Gómez-Navarro, Benjamín (September 2020). "Genetic diversity of HLA system in two populations from Michoacán, Mexico: Morelia and rural Michoacán".Human Immunology.81 (9):506–509.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.05.017.ISSN1879-1166.PMID31174912.
^Ortega-Yáñez, Andrea; Barquera, Rodrigo; Curiel-Giles, Laura; Martínez-Álvarez, Julio César; Macías-Medrano, Rosa María; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Clayton, Stephen; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Immel, Alexander; Vega-Martínez, María del Rosario; Benítez-Arvizu, Gamaliel; Arrazola-García, María Araceli; Arriaga-Perea, Agustín Jericó; Juárez-Cortés, Eva Dolores (1 September 2020)."Genetic diversity of HLA system in two populations from Morelos, Mexico: Cuernavaca and rural Morelos".Human Immunology. Population immunogenetics of Mexican mixed ancestry populations.81 (9):557–559.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.07.289.ISSN0198-8859.PMID31345701.
^Goné-Vázquez, Isis; Barquera, Rodrigo; Arellano-Prado, Francia Paulina; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Escobedo-Ruíz, Araceli; Clayton, Stephen; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; García-Arias, Víctor Eduardo; Rodríguez-López, Marla Estefanía; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Sánchez-Fernández, María Guadalupe de Jesús; Sandoval-Sandoval, Mario J.; Gómez-Navarro, Benjamín; Zúñiga, Joaquín; Yunis, Edmond J. (1 September 2020)."Genetic diversity of HLA system in two populations from Nayarit, Mexico: Tepic and rural Nayarit".Human Immunology. Population immunogenetics of Mexican mixed ancestry populations.81 (9):499–501.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.06.008.ISSN0198-8859.PMID31201078.
^Barquera, Rodrigo; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Clayton, Stephen; Munguía, Tirzo Jesús Rodríguez; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Adalid-Sáinz, Carmen; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Aquino-Rubio, Guadalupe; González-Martínez, Marisela Del Rocío; Lona-Sánchez, Abraham; Martínez-Álvarez, Julio César; Arrazola-García, María Araceli; Delgado-Aguirre, Héctor; González-Medina, Liliana; Pacheco-Ubaldo, Hanna (September 2020). "Genetic diversity of HLA system in two populations from Nuevo León, Mexico: Monterrey and rural Nuevo León".Human Immunology.81 (9):516–518.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.06.003.ISSN1879-1166.PMID31201077.
^Hernández-Hernández, Ofelia; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Barquera, Rodrigo; Warinner, Christina; López-Gil, Concepción; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Clayton, Stephen; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Ramos-de la Cruz, Flor Del Rocío; Méndez-Mani, Patricia; Pavón-Vargas, María de Los Ángeles; Zúñiga, Joaquín; Yunis, Edmond J.; Bekker-Méndez, Carolina; Granados, Julio (September 2020). "Genetic diversity of HLA system in two populations from Oaxaca, Mexico: Oaxaca city and rural Oaxaca".Human Immunology.81 (9):553–556.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.07.278.ISSN1879-1166.PMID31345697.
^Clayton, Stephen; Barquera, Rodrigo; Uribe-Duarte, María Guadalupe; Goné Vázquez, Isis; Zúñiga, Joaquín; Arrieta-Bolaños, Esteban; Hernández-Zaragoza, Diana Iraíz; Ruíz-Corral, María de Jesús; Escobedo-Ruíz, Araceli; Arellano-Prado, Francia Paulina; García-Arias, Víctor Eduardo; Rodríguez-López, Marla Estefanía; Bravo-Acevedo, Alicia; Sánchez-Fernández, María Guadalupe de Jesús; Aguilar-Campos, Jesús Abraham (1 September 2020)."Genetic diversity of HLA system in two populations from Sinaloa, Mexico: Culiacán and rural Sinaloa".Human Immunology. Population immunogenetics of Mexican mixed ancestry populations.81 (9):482–484.doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2019.06.006.ISSN0198-8859.PMID31201081.
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