Characene
141 BC–222 AD
A map of Characene.
Status	Autonomous state, frequently a vassal of the Parthian Empire
Capital	Charax Spasinu
Common languages	Aramaic (cultural language)[1]
Government	Monarchy
• 141–124 BC	Hyspaosines(first)
• 210–222 AD	Abinergaios III(last)
Historical era	Classical antiquity
• Established	141 BC
• Sasanian conquest	222 AD
Preceded by Succeeded by Seleucid Empire Sasanian Empire

Characene (Ancient Greek: Χαρακηνή), also known asMesene (Μεσσήνη)^[2] orMeshan, was a kingdom founded by theIranian^[3]Hyspaosines located at the head of thePersian Gulf mostly within modern dayIraq. Its capital,Charax Spasinou (Χάραξ Σπασινού), was an important port for trade betweenMesopotamia andIndia, and also provided port facilities for the city ofSusa further up theKarun River. The kingdom was frequently a vassal of theParthian Empire. Characene was mainly populated byArabs, who spokeAramaic as their cultural language.^[1] All rulers of the principality had Iranian names.^[4] Members of theArsacid dynasty also ruled the state.^[5]

The name "Characene" originated from the name of the capital of the kingdom,Charax Spasinu. The kingdom was also known by the older name of the region, "Mesene", which is seemingly of Persian origin, meaning "land of buffalos" or the "land of sheep."^[6]

The capital of Characene,Alexandria, was originally founded by theMacedonian rulerAlexander the Great, with the intention of using the town as a leading commercial port for his eastern capital ofBabylon.^[7] The region itself became theSatrapy of the Erythraean Sea.^[8] However, the city never lived up to its expectations, and was destroyed in the mid 3rd-century BC by floods.^[7] It was not until the reign of theSeleucid kingAntiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175 – 164 BC) that the city was rebuilt and renamed Antiochia.[7] After the city was fully restored in 166/5 BC, Antiochus IV appointedHyspaosines as governor (eparch) of Antiochia and theSatrapy of the Erythraean Sea.^[9]

During this period Antiochia briefly flourished, until Antiochus IV's abrupt death in 163 BC, which weakened Seleucid authority throughout the empire.^[7] With the weakening of the Seleucids, many political entities within the empire declared independence, such as the neighbouring region of Characene,Elymais, which was situated in most of the present-day province ofKhuzestan in southern Iran.^[7] Hyspaosines, although now a more or less independent ruler, remained a loyal subject of the Seleucids.^[7] Hyspaosines' keenness to remain as a Seleucid governor was possibly due to avoid interruption in the profitable trade between Antiochia andSeleucia.^[7]

The Seleucids had suffered heavy defeats by the IranianParthian Empire; in 148/7 BC, the Parthian kingMithridates I (r. 171–132 BC) conqueredMedia andAtropatene, and by 141 BC, was in the possession ofBabylonia.^[10] The menace and proximity of the Parthians caused Hyspaosines to declare independence.^[7] In 124 BC, however, Hyspaosines accepted Parthian suzerainty, and continued to rule Characene as a vassal.^[11] Characene would generally remain a semi-autonomous kingdom under Parthian suzerainty till its fall. The realm of the kingdom included the islandsFailaka andBahrain.^[12]

The kings of Characene are known mainly by their coins, consisting mainly of silvertetradrachms withGreek and laterAramaic inscriptions. These coins are dated after theSeleucid era, providing a secure framework for chronological succession.

In hisNatural History,Pliny the Elder praises the port of Charax:

The embankments extend in length a distance of nearly 4½ kilometers, in breadth a little less. It stood at first at a distance of 1¾ km from the shore, and even had a harbor of its own. But according to Juba, it is 75 kilometer from the sea; and at the present day, the ambassadors from Arabia, and our own merchants who have visited the place, say that it stands at a distance of one 180 kilometers from the sea-shore. Indeed, in no part of the world have alluvial deposits been formed more rapidly by the rivers, and to a greater extent than here; and it is only a matter of surprise that the tides, which run to a considerable distance beyond this city, do not carry them back again.^[13]

Trade continued to be important. A famous Characenian, a man namedIsidore, was the author of a treatise on Parthian trade routes, theMansiones Parthicae. The inhabitants ofPalmyra had a permanent trading station in Characene. Many inscriptions mention caravan trade.

Next to Charax, other important cities wereForat (at the Tigris),Apologos andTeredon.^[14] On his coinsMeredates (ruled 131 to 150/151) calls himselfking of the Omani. The latter are mentioned sporadically by ancient writers. According to Pliny (VI.145) they lived betweenPetra and Charax. They were according to some scholars for a certain period part of the Charakene. So it seems that the kingdom extended to the South of the Persian Gulf.^[15] However, the reading and interpretation of the legends on the king's coins is problematic.^[16]

In AD 115 the Roman emperorTrajan conquered Mesopotamia as main part of hisParthian campaign. He also reached Characene, where he saw ships bound for India. According toCassius Dio,^[17]Attambelos ruled there and was friendly to the emperor. Also the people of Charax Spasinu are described as friendly towards the emperor. The following two years, the Charakene remained most likely Roman, but emperorHadrian decided to withdraw from Trajan's territorial gains. It remains uncertain whether the Charakene remained independent or whether it was placed under direct Parthian rule. The next Parthian king attested in ancient sources isMeredates, mentioned in an inscription at Palmyra datable to 131.^[18]

In 221–222 AD, an ethnic Persian,Ardashir V, who wasKing of Persis, led a revolt against the Parthians, establishing theSasanian Empire. According to later Arab histories, he defeated Characene forces, killed its last ruler, rebuilt the town, and renamed it Astarābād-Ardašīr.^[19] The area around Charax that had been the Characene state was thereon known by theAramaic namemyšn,myšwn in theBabylonian Talmud (Baba Kamma 97b;Baba Bathra 73a;Shabbat 101a), ormyšyn as attested in anAramaicincantation bowl fromNippur,^[20] which was later adapted by the Arab conquerors as Maysān.^[21]

Charax continued, under the name Maysān, with Persian texts making various mention of governors throughout the fifth century. ANestorian Church was mentioned there in the sixth century. The Charaxmint appears to have continued throughout the Sassanid empire and into theUmayyad empire, minting coins as late as AD 715.^[22]

The earliest references from the first century A.D. indicates that the people of Characene were referred to as Μεσηνός and lived along the Arabian side of the coast at the head of the Persian Gulf.

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Ancient period Kura–Araxes culture 3400–2000 Helmand culture/Jiroft culture c. 3300–2200 Proto-Elamite 3200–2700 Lullubi Kingdom/Zamua c. 3100-675 Elam 2700–539 Marhaši c. 2550-2020 Oxus Civilization c. 2400–1700 Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 Kassites c. 1500–1155 Avestan period c. 1500–500 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Mannaea 850–616 Zikirti 750-521 Saparda 720-670
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v t e

• Hyspaosinesc. 127–124 BC
• Apodakosc. 110/09–104/03 BC
• Tiraios I 95/94–90/89 BC
• Bellaios c.85/4 BC
  • possible usurper:Hippokrates Autokrator Nikephoros 81/80 BC
• Tiraios II 79/78–49/48 BC
• Artabazos I 49/48–48/47 BC
• Attambelos I 47/46–25/24 BC
• Theonesios I c. 19/18
• Attambelos II c. 17/16 BC – AD 8/9
• Abinergaos I 10/11; 22/23
• Orabazes I c. 19
• Attambelos III c. 37/38–44/45
• Theonesios II c. 46/47
• Theonesios III c. 52/53
• Attambelos IV 54/55–64/65
• Attambelos V 64/65–73/74
• Orabazes II c. 73–80
• Pakoros 80–101/02
• Attambelos VIc. 101/02–105/06
• Theonesios IVc. 110/11–112/113
• Attambelos VII 113/14–117
• Meredates c. 131–150/51
• Orabazes II c. 150/51–165
• Abinergaios II (?) c. 165–180
• Attambelos VIII c. 180–195
• Maga (?) c. 195–210
• Abinergaos III c. 210–222

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• Kings of Characene
• Ancient Mesopotamia
• Sites along the Silk Road
• Seleucid Empire successor states
• 120s BC establishments
• Parthian Empire
• 222 disestablishments
• States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century
• States and territories established in the 2nd century BC

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